How the emperor who came closer than anyone to restoring the Roman Mediterranean ultimately helped create the world that replaced it

In the year 476, the Roman Empire supposedly fell. At least, that is the date with which generations of schoolchildren have been taught to mark the end of the Western Roman Empire. Romulus Augustulus, the young emperor in Italy, was deposed by the Germanic military commander Odoacer. The imperial insignia were sent to Constantinople. The ancient world, according to the traditional story, had come to an end.

Less than sixty years later, another Roman emperor sat in Constantinople and began trying to recover the territories that had been lost in the West. His name was Justinian. And for a remarkable moment, it seemed that he might succeed.

By the time Justinian died in 565, Roman armies had destroyed the Vandal kingdom in North Africa, conquered the Ostrogothic kingdom in Italy, established an imperial foothold in southern Spain and brought much of the Mediterranean back under Roman control. The empire once again stretched across territories that had been separated from Constantinople for generations.

Yet there was a terrible irony at the heart of Justinian’s achievement. The emperor who dreamed of restoring Rome may have made the empire less capable of defending that restoration. His reconquests were extraordinary. They were also ruinously expensive, politically disruptive and undertaken at precisely the moment when disease, war and demographic change were transforming the Mediterranean.

Justinian did not simply fail to restore the old Roman Empire. He may have succeeded too briefly—and at too great a price.

The Roman Empire That Had Never Really Died

To understand Justinian’s ambition, we first need to abandon the idea that people in the sixth century thought the Roman Empire had ended in 476. They did not.

The empire ruled from Constantinople was still the Roman Empire. Its inhabitants called themselves Romans. Its emperor was a Roman emperor. Roman law remained the foundation of imperial government. Constantinople itself was the New Rome.

Modern historians often describe Justinian’s western campaigns as a “reconquest.” That is useful, but it can also be misleading. From Justinian’s perspective, he was not necessarily conquering a foreign world. He was recovering territories that had once belonged to the Roman state.

The sixth-century empire was therefore not a new Byzantine state consciously replacing Rome. It was still Rome—although a transformed Rome.

The transformation was profound. Greek was increasingly dominant in the eastern Mediterranean. Christianity had replaced the religious world of the Caesars. Constantinople rather than Rome was the political centre of imperial power. But the Roman idea remained extraordinarily powerful. And Justinian understood that idea better than most.

Justinian’s Great Opportunity

When Justinian became emperor in 527, he inherited an empire that was considerably stronger than the western territories that had replaced Roman rule. The eastern Roman state possessed wealth, an effective administrative machine and a professional military establishment. The West, by comparison, was politically fragmented.

The Vandals controlled North Africa. The Ostrogoths ruled Italy. Visigothic Spain was outside imperial control. Yet these successor kingdoms were not necessarily permanent geopolitical realities.

Justinian found his opportunity in Africa. The Vandal kingdom had been weakened by internal political disputes, religious divisions and succession problems. In 533, Justinian sent Belisarius, his most capable general, to Africa.

It was a breathtaking gamble. The result was even more breathtaking. Within a remarkably short campaign, the Vandal kingdom collapsed. Carthage was restored to Roman rule. The Vandal king Gelimer was captured. Belisarius returned to Constantinople in triumph, participating in a ceremony deliberately designed to evoke the ancient Roman triumph.

Procopius, Justinian’s contemporary historian, describes the spectacle in detail. The imperial government was consciously presenting the victory not merely as another military success, but as a restoration of Roman traditions. And perhaps this was the moment when Justinian’s impossible dream began to look possible.

If Africa could be recovered so quickly, why not Italy?

Italy: The War That Changed Everything

Italy was a very different proposition. In 535, Justinian launched his war against the Ostrogoths. At first the Romans made astonishing progress. Belisarius entered Italy and captured Rome in 536. The ancient capital of the empire was once again under Roman imperial control.

But the Gothic War would become one of the longest and most destructive conflicts of Justinian’s reign. Rome was not simply captured once. It became a battlefield. The Ostrogoths besieged the city. The Romans defended it. Armies marched repeatedly across the Italian peninsula. Cities were captured, lost and recaptured. The war dragged on for years.

What had begun as a campaign of restoration became a struggle for survival. Procopius gives us a remarkably vivid account of the devastation. His History of the Wars was written while many of these events were still within living memory, and his later Secret History presents an even darker interpretation of Justinian’s policies.

There are reasons to treat Procopius cautiously. He was not a neutral observer. His Secret History is an extraordinary attack on Justinian and Theodora, while his official histories and Buildings present a much more favourable image of imperial achievement. Yet precisely because we possess these contrasting portraits from the same author, they allow us to see how contested Justinian’s legacy already was.

The war finally ended with imperial victory in 554. Italy was Roman again. But what had been restored?

The Italy Justinian inherited after the Gothic War was not the Italy that Theodoric the Great had governed. Cities had been devastated. Agricultural production had been disrupted. The senatorial aristocracy had been badly damaged. The political structures that had allowed Italy to function under Ostrogothic rule had been shattered.

Modern scholarship has increasingly emphasized this problem. The Justinianic reconstruction did not simply repair Italy after the war; it fundamentally altered Italian society. The reconstruction itself damaged Rome and the senatorial aristocracy, helping create the political vacuum in which the papacy would acquire an increasingly important secular role.

The irony is difficult to escape. Justinian had gone to war to restore Roman Italy. The war itself helped destroy much of the political world he was trying to restore.

The Cost of Restoration

This is where the traditional story of Justinian begins to become more complicated. For generations, historians have portrayed the emperor as an overambitious ruler who squandered the resources of the eastern empire attempting to resurrect a dead western empire.

There is truth in that interpretation. The reconquests required enormous quantities of money and manpower. Justinian’s government had to maintain armies across enormous distances while simultaneously defending the empire’s eastern and Balkan frontiers.

But the situation was not as simple as “Justinian wasted everything on Italy.” The western territories could provide resources of their own. North Africa, Sicily and southern Italy were economically valuable. Their recovery could stimulate Mediterranean trade and return productive territories to imperial control. Modern economic historians therefore caution against viewing the reconquests simply as a disastrous drain on Constantinople. The recovery of western resources brought real benefits.

The problem was not that Justinian’s dream was irrational. The problem was that the empire had to pay for it while facing a series of catastrophes that Justinian could neither predict nor control.

First Came the Nika Revolt

In 532, before the great western campaigns had even begun, Constantinople exploded. The Nika revolt brought together factions normally associated with the city’s chariot racing culture and transformed them into a serious challenge to imperial authority.

The capital burned. Thousands died. Justinian reportedly considered fleeing. According to Procopius, it was Theodora who persuaded him to remain and confront the rebellion rather than abandon the throne. The revolt was eventually crushed with extraordinary violence.

But the destruction gave Justinian an opportunity. The old Hagia Sophia was destroyed, and Justinian ordered a spectacular replacement. Completed in only a few years, the new Hagia Sophia became perhaps the greatest architectural expression of his imperial ideology.

Justinian was rebuilding Constantinople. He was also rebuilding Rome’s legal and political inheritance.

The Lawgiver

Justinian’s ambitions were not confined to territory. His great legal compilation, the Corpus Juris Civilis, reorganized centuries of Roman law. This achievement was arguably more enduring than any of his military conquests.

The emperor wanted to impose order upon the vast legal inheritance of the Roman world. His government therefore created a systematic body of law that would have consequences far beyond the sixth century.

The military campaigns, the building programme and the legal reforms were all part of the same imperial vision. Justinian was not merely trying to conquer land. He was trying to restore Roman order.

That helps explain why his reign remains so important. Even after most of his western conquests disappeared, his legal and architectural legacy survived.

Then Came the Plague

And then came the catastrophe Justinian could not defeat.

In 541, plague appeared in the eastern Mediterranean. It reached Constantinople in 542. It was the beginning of what historians call the Justinianic Plague—the first historically well-attested pandemic caused by Yersinia pestis. Repeated outbreaks continued across the Mediterranean world for generations.

The scale of the demographic disaster remains fiercely debated. Older accounts sometimes accepted enormous mortality figures reported by ancient writers. Modern scholarship has questioned whether those numbers can be taken literally. Archaeological evidence does not always support the picture of universal demographic collapse suggested by some literary accounts.

But the existence of a major pandemic is not in doubt. Nor is its potential significance. The empire was fighting wars, collecting taxes, supplying armies and administering newly conquered territories when disease began repeatedly disrupting human populations and economic activity.

Justinian’s government therefore faced a problem that no emperor could simply legislate away. The empire was trying to expand at exactly the moment when its human and economic foundations were being placed under extraordinary pressure.

The Emperor Who Had Too Much Empire

By Justinian’s death in 565, the map looked magnificent. North Africa was Roman. Italy was Roman. Parts of southern Spain were Roman. The Mediterranean once again appeared to be an imperial sea.

On a map, it was a triumph. But maps can be deceptive.

An empire is not simply the territory it controls. It is the army capable of defending that territory, the taxation system capable of financing that army, the population capable of sustaining it, the political institutions capable of administering it and the economic networks capable of connecting its parts.

Justinian had achieved the first. The others were under severe strain.

The empire had to defend the Persian frontier in the East. It had to deal with raids and invasions in the Balkans. It had to maintain armies in Italy and Africa. It had to administer territories that had only recently been conquered. And it had to recover from plague and repeated warfare.

The result was an empire whose geographical reach had expanded faster than its ability to consolidate that expansion.

The Lombards Deliver the Verdict

Justinian died in 565. Three years later, the Lombards invaded Italy. The timing could hardly have been more brutal.

The imperial government had spent nearly two decades fighting to recover Italy. Yet within a few years of Justinian’s death, large parts of the peninsula were outside effective imperial control.

This is one of the reasons Justinian’s western policy has often been judged a failure. From the western perspective, the reconquest was temporary. The Lombards arrived in 568. North Africa would eventually be lost to the armies of Islam. The western Mediterranean that Justinian had attempted to reunify would once again fragment.

But there is another way of looking at the story. Perhaps Justinian did not fail because he was attempting to restore Rome. Perhaps he succeeded in demonstrating how difficult it had become to restore Rome.

So Did Justinian Lose Rome?

The title of this article contains a deliberate contradiction. Justinian did not simply “lose Rome.” He conquered it. He lost it. He conquered it again. He rebuilt it. And ultimately, his successors struggled to hold it.

The deeper question is therefore not whether Justinian personally lost Rome. It is whether the Roman world he imagined was still recoverable.

The answer may be no. The West had changed too profoundly. The old imperial political system had disappeared in much of Europe. New kingdoms had developed their own elites and institutions. The Roman Empire remained enormously powerful, but it was no longer the same empire that had ruled the Mediterranean in the age of Augustus.

Justinian’s achievement was therefore both extraordinary and paradoxical. He was perhaps the last emperor who could seriously attempt to restore the Mediterranean Roman Empire. And he may also have been the emperor who demonstrated that the old empire could no longer be restored in anything more than fragments.

The Impossible Dream

There is a temptation to judge Justinian by what happened after his death. That makes the reconquests look like an expensive failure. But that judgment misses something important.

For almost four decades Justinian governed one of the most ambitious imperial projects of late antiquity. He rebuilt Constantinople. He transformed Roman law. He defeated the Vandals. He destroyed the Ostrogothic kingdom. He brought Rome back under imperial rule. He extended Roman authority into Spain. He patronized architecture on a scale that still astonishes us.

He came closer than any emperor after Theodosius to restoring the territorial unity of the Roman Mediterranean.

And yet the very scale of his ambition created a problem. An empire can be restored on a map much more easily than it can be restored in reality.

Justinian could send Belisarius to Carthage. He could send armies to Italy. He could issue laws from Constantinople. He could raise taxes. He could build Hagia Sophia. But he could not recreate the demographic, economic and political conditions of the fourth-century Roman world.

The Roman Empire that survived Justinian would therefore become something new. It would lose much of Italy. It would eventually lose Syria and Egypt. It would become increasingly Greek-speaking. Its armies and institutions would evolve. Its political centre would remain Constantinople. And yet its emperors would continue to call themselves Roman.

That is perhaps Justinian’s greatest historical paradox. He did not restore the old Roman Empire. He helped create the empire that would survive Rome.

Rome did not die in Justinian’s lifetime. It changed.

And perhaps that is the real story of Justinian. Not the emperor who failed to resurrect Rome, but the emperor who stood at the precise moment when the ancient Roman world was becoming something else.

His dream was impossible. But for a brief, astonishing moment, he almost made it real.

Featured Image: Court of Emperor Justinian with Archbishop Maximian of Ravenna and three other clerics on Justinian's right, and two court officials and his guards on his left. (Roger Culos / CC BY-SA 3.0)

References

• Procopius, Wars of Justinian.

• Procopius, Buildings.

• Procopius, Secret History.

• Michael Maas (ed.), The Cambridge Companion to the Age of Justinian.

• Angeliki E. Laiou and Cécile Morrisson, The Byzantine Economy.

• Michele Renee Salzman, The Falls of Rome: The Later Roman Empire and the Decline of the West.

• Peter Sarris, Economy and Society in the Age of Justinian.

• Hugh Kennedy, The Mediterranean World in Late Antiquity.

Leslie Ivings is also the author of Byzantine Emperor Constantine V, Pen & Sword (2025)

Constantine V - warrior, reformer, and one of Byzantium’s most formidable emperors. A brilliant general who crushed the Arab advance, strengthened the crumbling empire, and won the loyalty of his soldiers long after his death.

But history has not been kind. A fierce iconoclast, hated by the church and smeared by monastic chroniclers, he was branded Copronymos (“the dung-named”), compared to a sorcerer - even the Antichrist.

Married three times, politically astute, and as influential in theology as he was on the battlefield, Constantine’s legacy rivals Justinian himself. Yet unlike Justinian, he died not in splendour, but leading his army on campaign in Bulgaria.

Listen to Leslie Ivings discuss his book on our podcast:

Table of Contents

• From the Editor

• In the News

• Quote

• Caption This!

• Last Week’s Comic Submissions

• Trivia Question

• Last Week’s Trivia Question

• Ask Me Anything

• Reminder: Paid Subscriptions are Back!

From the Editor

This week, we saw another amazing piece from the very talented , this time on the ancient Bronze Age civilization of Ugarit.

The discovery of Ugarit made a huge impact on the understanding of the Old Testament and Biblical history as a whole. Ugarit gave biblical scholars a much clearer look at the world surrounding the Bible. This is especially the case with its language, poetry, and religious traditions. The discoveries showed surprising connections between Ugaritic texts and the Hebrew Bible, helping scholars better understand where many biblical ideas and passages came from.

Fun fact: I have a tattoo of an Ugaritic phrase in Ugaritic cuneiform on my right arm.

Also released this week is a new series of mini-documentaries I started called Forgotten Worlds. The series spends a few minutes exploring forgotten cultures and history. The first episode focuses on the ancient Cycladic culture which predates the Minoans in the Aegean. This series sits behind a paid subscriber paywall but if you are interested, you should be able to at least use your freebie to access it.

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In the News

A Rare Snake-Headed Vessel and a Mysterious Roman Cult

A strange ceramic vessel found at a Roman villa in northeastern Spain features a handle shaped like a two-headed serpent. Archaeologists believe it was connected to the obscure eastern god Sabazios, suggesting his worship had reached rural communities in Iberia during the reign of Augustus. Source: Archaeology News.

An 11,000-Year-Old Sculpture of a Person Riding a Leopard

An unusual sculpture showing a human figure sitting on a leopard has been uncovered at Karahantepe in southeastern Turkey. Dating to around 11,000 years ago, the 28-inch-tall piece was found sitting on a bench inside a circular Neolithic structure. Source: Archaeology Magazine.

A High-Ranking Egyptian Official’s Tomb Found at Saqqara

Archaeologists have uncovered the Old Kingdom tomb of an official named Sekhentiu-Ptah at Saqqara, along with a preserved funerary chapel and ritual objects. Nearby burial shafts contained more than 100 ushabti figures, coffins, mummies, and other artifacts, showing that the area continued to be used as a cemetery for centuries. Source: Archaeology News.

Could This Be Egypt’s Lost City of Mesn?

A sandstone lintel bearing the name of Ramesses II and a reference to the mysterious city of Mesn has been discovered at Tell Abu Saifi in northern Sinai. The inscription is an intriguing clue, but archaeologists are stressing that more excavation is needed before the site can confidently be identified as the lost city. Source: HeritageDaily.

Archaeology Beneath the Holy Sepulchre Matches the Gospel Account

Excavations beneath Jerusalem’s Church of the Holy Sepulchre have revealed an ancient landscape of abandoned quarries, cultivated plots, and rock-cut tombs. While the findings cannot prove that the traditional tomb belonged to Jesus, they show that the landscape described in the Gospel of John is remarkably consistent with what archaeologists have found beneath the church. Source: Arkeonews.

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Caption This!

Welcome to a new, fun series where you get to be part of the joke!

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Perseus realizing there are apparently multiple ways to get rock hard. 😅

CJ Morgan
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Queen Artemisia I of Caria commanded a naval squadron of five ships for the Persian king Xerxes I during the historic Battle of Salamis in 480 BC.

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Featured Image: Ugarit Royal Palace reception hall with pool. (HaubilGerhard Haubold / CC BY-SA 4.0)

Welcome to Forgotten Worlds, a mini-documentary series where we spend a few minutes exploring forgotten cultures and history, presented by Digging Up The Past.

When we picture the ancient Aegean, it’s easy to focus on the places we know best: Athens, Crete, and Mycenae. But scattered across those blue waters are the Cyclades, a collection of islands with a story that goes back thousands of years before classical Greece. The people who lived there were skilled sailors, traders, artists, and craftsmen, yet so much about their world remains a mystery. Who were they? What did their rituals mean? And why did they create those haunting marble figures we still recognize today? In this episode, we’re heading into the heart of the Cyclades to explore what archaeologists have uncovered and, perhaps more importantly, what they still can’t explain.

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The ancient city of Ugarit in modern Syria remained nothing more than a legend buried beneath a great mound of earth until its discovery in 1928. Thousands of years of settlements from the Neolithic to the Late Bronze Age were stacked atop one another, forming its mass. During Ugarit’s last era, grand temples, palaces, and libraries overlooked the glistening waters of the Levantine Mediterranean. Texts, records, and correspondence were written in at least eight different languages. Their own written language was among the first alphabetic systems in recorded history, one used to decipher religious texts of the modern world.

Yet, for all that Ugarit accomplished, it was their god and his epic that commanded eternal reverence. Baal, god of storms, fought his way to power, swaying Death and the Sea to his mighty will. His reputation faltered as a new religion swept through the Levant, condemning him as evil. Perhaps he was too powerful. His worship was widespread, an unstoppable force of earned legitimacy. Ugarit found its legitimacy through its own pragmatism and the foundations of a god’s accession. It was only inevitable that a singular god would see in himself the power that Baal once had.

A Kingdom of Trade and Tales

Ugarit was never a major player in military exploits. They found their success in maritime trade and clever alliances. As a fortified seaport, they catered to those who could benefit them. Egypt, Cyprus, Crete, the Cyclades, and Mesopotamia relied on their strategic location along the shores of the Northern Levant. During the Middle Bronze Age, kings of Egypt gifted sovereigns of Ugarit stela, statuettes, and carnelian. Shells from Crete, cylinder seals from Babylonia, pottery from Mycenae, and art of stela, bronze, and ceremonial ivory displaying the flair of Syria and Egypt further attest to their expansive network. By the time of Egypt’s New Kingdom, they thrived as a booming trade center. A golden age of architecture decorated a city equally elevated atop a lofty acropolis.

Fortunately, Ugarit’s golden age produced a plethora of documentation. The city housed multilingual archives in languages such as Egyptian, Sumerian, Akkadian, Hurrian, Hittite, Luwian, and Cypriot-Minoan. Private residents as well as palatial institutions kept meticulous records of anything from trade to social and cultural life. Temple libraries provide ample evidence of their alphabetic system, consisting of thirty letters written in cuneiform, a notable departure from syllabic or pictorial writing systems.

As the world around vied for supremacy, Ugarit, as a trade hub, could not entirely stand on its own. From c. 1600 – 1200 BCE, it relied on the good graces of Egypt and Cyprus, who proved formidable allies. Even as the Hittites took control of their city around 1340 – 1300 BCE, they used them to their full advantage. At times, they offered military, financial, and economic support to the whims of their overlords. Other times, they exploited their weaknesses. When Rameses II battled the Hittites at Kadesh, the Ugaritians fought alongside them, but the moment failure was imminent, they fell back into the welcoming embrace of Egypt, with seemingly little consequence. They, themselves, never instigated war. Ugarit’s strength was in its diplomacy.

At the end of the Bronze Age, Ugarit collapsed just as most of its neighbors did. The pressures of a new age could not sustain them. The palace-temple economy that ruled them fell apart as people expanded out into the countryside. Natural disasters and the migration of the legendary Sea Peoples hastened the demise of their now fragile port, and they, along with the Hittites, became seemingly lost to the world that once was. Though the city would remain in obscurity until a 20th-century farmer uncovered the tomb that brought archaeologists to the base of its hill, Ugarit somehow continued to influence those around them.

The Battle of Storm, Sea, and Death

The myriads of bilingual and multilingual texts from Late Bronze Age Ugarit no doubt demonstrate impressive cordialities that may support why they never had any enemies. More so, it shows a rather remarkable affinity toward storytelling. Among their religious texts are many of the same stories that circulated through the region, such as Gilgamesh and the great flood. It also shows that they worshipped the same deities, the storm god Baal and the supreme El, creator and father of gods.

At the time, Baal’s worship was widespread. People throughout the Levant, Phoenicia, and even Egypt knew Baal by one of his many names. He was a king who represented order, overcoming the forces of chaos that disrupted nature’s delicate balance. He was the Rider of the Clouds, the Mighty One, the one without equal, Lord of heaven and earth; there was none above him. His foundational epic describes the scenes that shaped the seasons and made the Levant such a fertile landscape, culturally and agriculturally.

The Baal Cycle is a story of cosmic proportions. It portrays Baal’s struggle in subduing his opposition, the god of the sea and the god of drought and death. Though somewhat fragmentary, what remains etched on clay tablets tells a tale of drama and perpetual defiance. The story begins with Baal feasting among his fellow gods along with his sister and consort, Anat, goddess of war, known to wear the heads of her victims upon her chest. During this time, Baal has no palace to call his own; recognition of his sovereignty completely depended upon his father, the supreme El.

When the ruthless god of the sea, Yamm, sent his messengers to demand obedience, claiming he is the most powerful of gods, Baal simply asked what clever speech the god had prepared for him. Yamm’s messengers boldly declared the sea god’s claim to Baal. But the storm god would never surrender to a god so presumptuous. With weapons fashioned by the divine craftsman of Egypt, Kothar-wa-Hasis, Baal readied himself to face the savage Sea. Anat spoke to her husband, battle looming.

“To earth shall fall the strong,
To dust the mighty…
I tell thee, O Prince Baal,
I declare O Rider of the Clouds.
Now thine enemy wilt thy smite,
Now wilt thy cut off thy adversary.
Thou’lt take thy eternal kingdom,
Thine everlasting dominion.”
“Kothar brings down two clubs
And gives them names…
Do thou swoop in the hand of Baal,
Like an eagle between his fingers;
It strikes the pate of Prince Yamm…
Yamm collapses,
He falls to the ground;
His joints bend,
His frame breaks.”

(Pritchard translation)

Baal had won, and Yamm was forever imprisoned, but victory was not enough. A god was nothing without a worthy house. Alas, El granted Baal his palace, thanks to the persuasions of his and El’s consorts, and the storm god’s kingship was finally legitimized. From his throne upon Mount Saphon, Baal’s thunder shook the earth, his dominion stretching to mortal cities near and far. Yet divine glory would inevitably awaken another fearsome foe. Mot, another son of El and personification of death, came to claim Baal just as Yamm had tried and failed.

Anger festered in Mot at the thought of being excluded from the divine feast of gods. He threatened Baal, wanting to use the terror of deathly invocations to consume his brother. Briefly, Mot succeeded. Baal was swallowed by his ghastly brother, and with the storm god gone, droughts came, and the earth began to wither. Just as Baal to Yamm, Anat would not submit so easily to Mot. She hunted him with a chilling vengeance, violence spilling out of her until Mot was dead, ground up and scattered to ash.

“With the sword she doth cleave him
With fan she doth winnow him
With fire she doth burn him.
With hand-mill she grinds him.
In fields she doth sow him.
Birds eat his remnants,
Consuming his portions,
Flitting from remnant to remnant.”

Mot had been consumed as he once did to Baal. Meanwhile, sun goddess Shapshu scoured the earth for the fallen storm god. Baal triumphantly returned. Still, Death can never truly ever die, not in the same way a mortal can. The cycle of storm and death’s struggle restores itself time and time again, as seasons change, as Baal returns to his throne.

Common Themes in Baal and the Bible

The Ugaritic Baal Cycle is one of many ancient texts that describes agricultural cycles and the precarity of death as a unifying narrative. More specifically, however, these texts follow very similar patterns, especially throughout the ancient Near East and Mediterranean. Not so surprisingly, they also involve the sea as a catalyst for order overcoming chaos. Versions may slightly vary in their telling; some may incorporate a grain goddess of sorts who works to appease the storm god, becoming something of a consort. Others may be intertwined within creation stories.

In Mesopotamia, after the chaos that ensued from Inanna’s descent into the underworld, Tammuz, the god of the fertile spring, was chosen to reside in the underworld for part of the year. In Egypt, the death of Osiris at the hands of his brother, Seth, was connected to the rise and fall of the Nile. In the Contendings of Horus and Seth, Horus fights for his rightful place as Osiris’s successor against the brother and perpetrator of his father’s slaughter. Similar to Baal, the series of battles is headed by a divine assembly, a supreme entity who ultimately decides the fate of the next king. Horus earned his victory through fierce struggle and was granted legitimacy. Baal was granted a palace and legitimacy in the eyes of the gods and his people.

The theme of agricultural cycles, battles between gods, and kingship carried on even as civilizations collapsed at the end of the Bronze Age. The ancient Canaanite culture, indigenous to the Levant, transformed into the Israelite culture. Gods became a singular presence and new stories were told of creation, chaos, and order. As such, the city of Ugarit becomes far more important. Linguistically, the written languages of Ugaritic and Hebrew are so similar that biblical scholars have used Ugaritic to decipher challenging words and phrases that otherwise would have been subject to interpretation. Both systems share an identical alphabetic order, as well as a consonantal structure referred to as Abjad, meaning that short vowels were generally omitted.

What these findings reveal is that the Ugaritic and Hebrew languages were vastly similar, both expectedly being from the same Semitic family. Additionally, as expected, the two cultures would also share a great deal of literary parallels. Israelite texts have often called Baal a false god in opposition to Yahweh. Yet one cannot help but notice the familiar ways in which battles were fought and divine palaces erected. Sequential events in the Old Testament are remarkably similar to those of the Baal Cycle: the battle of the sea, the coming of the city of heaven, and finally, Death’s defeat.

“Yet, God, my king from the first, author of saving acts throughout the earth,
by your power you split the sea in two, and smashed the heads of the monsters on the waters.
You crushed Leviathan’s heads, gave him as food to the wild animals.
You released the springs and brooks, and turned primordial rivers into dry land.
Yours is the day and yours the night, you caused sun and light to exist,
you fixed all the boundaries of the earth, you created summer and winter.” (Psalms 74:12-17)

“Then I saw a new heaven and a new earth; the first heaven and the first earth had disappeared now, and there was no longer any sea.
I saw the holy city, the new Jerusalem, coming down out of heaven from God, prepared as a bride dressed for her husband.
Then I heard a loud voice call from the throne, ‘Look, here God lives among human beings. He will make his home among them; they will be his people, and he will be their God, God-with-them.
He will wipe away all tears from their eyes; there will be no more death, and no more mourning or sadness or pain. The world of the past has gone.” (Revelation 21:1-4)

Further, early Israelite theologies state that Yahweh’s earthly palace was built atop a mountain, just as Baal’s, but more specifically, as per symbolic tradition, to represent the boundary between the earth and the sky, heaven. Gods throughout the ancient world took up earthly residence atop mountains; one primary example would be the entirety of the Greek major pantheon and their supreme god of storms, Zeus, on Mount Olympus. What is more compelling, still, is the epithet by which Baal was identified, Rider of Clouds, being reimagined to describe Yahweh in multiple verses.

“Sing to God, play music to his name, build a road for the Rider of the Clouds, rejoice in Yahweh, dance before him.” (Psalms 68:4)

“…build your palace on the waters above, making the clouds your chariot, gliding on the wings of the wind.” (Psalms 104:3)

“No one is like the God of Jeshurun: he rides the heavens to your rescue, rides the clouds in his majesty!” (Deuteronomy 33:26)

Psalms 135:7 claims that Yahweh can summon clouds, bring rain, lightning, and wind. In Matthew 8:23-27, Jesus soothes his disciples aboard a boat caught in a raging storm by simply rebuking the winds and calming the sea. Throughout the ancient world, weather and agriculture determined sustainability. As such, myths often reflect geographical, political, and social issues tied to a people’s ability to thrive. Themes associated with the sea may be a reflection of advancements in trade routes and conflicts between seafarers, fishermen, and piratical groups. Further themes, such as droughts and death, profoundly affect humanity. Mythology gives reason to suffering through the struggles of gods. And those who can control the weather ultimately control the world.

Still, the parallels seen between Ugarit and biblical writers do not assume that Baal was repurposed as Yahweh. Rather, it shows a broader familiarity with Northern Semitic religious expressions that emphasize the significance of storms, sea, divine kinship, fertility, and chaos. Where Baal establishes his authority and legitimacy by defeating the Sea and securing his divine palace, Yahweh is portrayed as the supreme creator and king who already commands the sea and cosmos. Ugarit, therefore, offers a missing piece in Canaanite cultural and religious evolution and transformation through those with whom they shared cultural ties and interacted. As other religions have done, the Israelites likely aspired to distinguish themselves from their neighbors while still honoring their heritage. Inherited stories, the conflicts of man, and perhaps the authority of Ugaritic Baal may have shaped the might of a god, but that god would have his own story to tell.

Featured image: Ruins of Ugarit (modern day Raš Shamra, Syria). ( Loris Romito / CC BY-SA 3.0)

References

• King, J. 2012. Ugarit. World History Encyclopedia. Available at https://www.worldhistory.org/ugarit/

• Schaeffer, C.F.A. 2025. Ugarit: Ancient City, Syria. Encyclopedia Britannica. Available at: https://www.britannica.com/place/Ugarit

• Atwood, R. 2021. The Ugarit Archives. Archaeology Magazine. Available at: https://archaeology.org/issues/july-august-2021/features/ugarit-bronze-age-archive/

• Benner, J.A. 2026. Ugarit and the Bible. Ancient Hebrew Research Center. Available at: https://www.ancient-hebrew.org/biblical-history/ugarit-and-the-bible.htm

• Pritchard, J.B. 1969. Ancient Near East Texts Related to the Old Testament. Princeton University Press. Available at: https://www.marquette.edu/maqom/baalyamm.pdf

• Lutz, R.C. 2019. The Baal Myth from Ugarit. Available at: https://www.ebsco.com/research-starters/religion-and-philosophy/baal-myth-ugarit

• Old Testament excerpts retrieved from https://www.catholic.org/bible/old_testament.php

Table of Contents

• From the Editor

• In the News

• Quote

• Caption This!

• Poll Question

• Last Week’s Poll Answer

• Ask Me Anything

• Reminder: Paid Subscriptions Are Back!

From the Editor

A lot has been on my mind lately. Something that I have noticed in recent months is that engagement seems to be down all over Substack. It isn’t limited to the newsletters but I am also seeing it on my podcast episodes to even the community driven Notes social feature. I have been asking around and it seems that I am not the only one affected by this and it may be more of a Substack platform issue. But at the same time, I need to consider increasing the quality of my content. I owe it to all of my subscribers.

I have been spending quite a bit of time in the recent couple of weeks creating new video content for the site (which also gets shared on social media). I have already shared the One-Minute Digs with you. And there are more episodes in the queue, waiting to get published.

I am also working on a new video series of short documentaries (we are talking 3-4 minutes long) which will likely remain behind the paywall called Forgotten Worlds. Similar to the One-Minute Digs, the goal is to provide quick digestible facts about the ancient cultures that continue to fascinate us. The first episode is nearly complete. Stay tuned for more…

Latest Podcast Episode on Emperor Titus

Also, be sure to check out our latest podcast episode where I sit down with research and author, to discuss his latest book: Emperor Titus: The Right Hand of Vespasian. I never realized how much more there was to this little written about Roman Emperor.

Content and Scheduling

Consistency is good. Especially when it comes to online publications. I am also trying to figure out a proper schedule for content. The plan is to limit content to no more than 3 per week. After doing some research and following a few trial experiments, I believe I will schedule the following content on the following days.

• Tuesdays — Long form articles or a detailed artifact analysis special feature

• Thursdays — Audio Podcast or video content

• Sundays — Weekly Digests (like this one)

Note - There may be some weeks where long form articles may not be available to publish (especially, in the beginning) but I will do my best to limit this interruption.

In the News

Ancient Roman Bathhouse Revealed at Apollon Smintheus

Archaeologists excavating the Apollon Smintheus sanctuary in Türkiye have uncovered the cold-water pools and changing room of a Roman bathhouse dating to around the third century AD. The discovery adds more detail to a complex that included hot rooms, service corridors, furnaces, and water systems. Source: Hürriyet Daily News.

A Mysterious Goddess Hidden in a Spanish Cave

More than 120 Roman inscriptions have been recorded inside a cave sanctuary in eastern Spain, including five dedicated to a previously unknown goddess called “the Lady.” The inscriptions, along with jewelry, pottery, coins, and other offerings, suggest the deep underground cave was an important place of worship. Source: Archaeology Magazine.

Göbekli Tepe May Have Been More Than a Ritual Site

New excavations at 11,600-year-old Göbekli Tepe are challenging the long-held idea that the site was used exclusively for religious gatherings. Archaeologists have uncovered evidence of large residential structures, suggesting people may have actually lived there during part of its history. Source: IFLScience.

Did Bronze Age Arabia Have Its Own Brand?

Pottery produced at the oasis of Qurayyah in northwestern Arabia around 3,600 years ago may represent one of the earliest examples of branding. Its distinctive designs, consistent production methods, and wide distribution gave the pottery a recognizable identity that spread hundreds of miles. Source: Archaeology Magazine.

Egyptian Tomb Reveals Changing Burial Practices

A tomb in the Theban Necropolis is giving archaeologists a fascinating look at how Egyptian burial practices changed over several centuries. What began as separate burials in coffins eventually became densely arranged layers of mummies, including a curious case where a mummified dog was placed above human remains. Source: Archaeology Magazine.

Quote

For as the eyes of bats are to the blaze of day, so is the reason in our soul to the things which are by nature most evident of all. - Aristotle

Caption This!

Welcome to a new, fun series where you get to be part of the joke!

Each time, I’ll share a comic panel and leave the caption up to you. Come up with something funny, clever, sarcastic, ridiculous, or completely unexpected. There’s really no wrong answer, as long as it’s appropriate. Just comment below!

The best part? Your submissions could make it into a future “Caption This!” post! I’ll pick some of my favorites and feature them in a follow-up, so you might just see your caption alongside the next panel.

So take a look, get creative, and give me your best caption. I can’t wait to see what you come up with!

Poll Question

Last Week’s Poll Answer

Athens and Sparta were the two prominent city-states that fought as the primary rivals in the Peloponnesian War.

Ask Me Anything

It has been a while since I have done an Ask-Me-Anything video, so, now is your chance to start asking your ancient history focused or Digging Up The Past questions! And once I get enough, a new video will be recorded!

Reminder: Paid Subscriptions are Back!

Just another reminder that Paid Subscriptions are re-enabled! As a paid subscriber, not only will you get special access to both videos and special articles but your contributions will help support my project to continue providing the content you enjoy.

Expect to see fresh new paid subscriber content soon!

Starting today, Digging Up The Past is offering a Halloween promotional sale which ends on October 31st. Is it a bit early for a Halloween promotion? Nope! It is never too early for anything Halloween. 😄 Be sure to not miss out on getting 20% off annual subscriptions for all eternity! Mhua ha ha ha!

20% off annual subscriptions!

Your subscriptions help support the content that goes into making this site possible, including interviews, videos, and other great features. Unfortunately, many of the tools, resources, and guest appearances that make this content possible come with a cost. Your support helps me keep creating and bringing more of this content to you.

Your support is genuinely appreciated. It helps keep the site going and, just as importantly, gives me the motivation to keep creating and sharing more with you!

Featured Image: The treasures of Jerusalem relief under the Arch of Titus in Rome, Italy. (Jebulon / CC0 1.0)

Think going to the dentist today is stressful? Imagine having your teeth held together with gold wire. Thousands of years ago, ancient Egyptians were already getting creative with dental repairs. So how exactly did this bizarre bit of ancient dentistry work?

Be sure to visit Marc Hyden’s website: https://www.marchyden.com.

From the Editor

Coming off the heels of the latest podcast episode and my conversation with Fred Drogula still fresh in my head, the fact that we are observing more and more adults shifting towards Classical Studies continues to fascinate me. It was discussed more thoroughly in the latter episode but the general rationale is that at some point in an adult’s life, after they establish their careers, the dust settles on expanding their families, etc., adopting stoic teachings is a way in which one can calm the chaos in their life. That is one such example. Another rests more in the idea that the history of that period interests them and as an adult, they are then able to carve out a bit of time to learn more.

What are your thoughts on Classical Studies? Is it a dying fad, or is it more alive than ever?

Either way, I will often find myself revisiting the writings of ancient Classical authors. I don’t always need a reason either.

Another topic which may be of interest is a new feature to the publication. I have been posting short videos called One-Minute Dig. These videos are designed to be a fun source for quick and fascinating historical facts. I do hope you enjoy them. If you have any thoughts or ideas for future videos, then do not hesitate to reach out. The more obscure and lesser known, the better.

Let me know what you think of them or if you have any interesting historical topics for future episodes.

In the News

Roman Shipwreck Packed With Amphorae

A 2,100-year-old Roman shipwreck carrying around 500 amphorae has been discovered off the coast of Sicily. Found about three miles from Mazara del Vallo, the vessel offers a fascinating look at the Mediterranean trade networks that connected the ancient world. Source: The Guardian.

A Nile Delta Necropolis Used for Thousands of Years

Archaeologists have uncovered a necropolis at Kom El-Khelgan that was used from the Predynastic period all the way into the Greco-Roman era. The site includes ancient graves, homes, grain silos and ovens, giving researchers an unusually long look at how people lived and buried their dead in the Nile Delta. Source: Archaeology Magazine.

The Tomb of King Midas’ Father?

A massive burial mound at ancient Gordion is now believed to contain the tomb of Gordias, the father of the legendary King Midas. The remarkably preserved wooden chamber and nearly 100 bronze brooches offer a rare glimpse into Phrygian craftsmanship and elite burial practices. Source: Archaeology Magazine.

A Wrestler’s Tomb Discovered at Aspendos

Archaeologists working at ancient Aspendos in Türkiye have uncovered a 2,400-year-old tomb that may have belonged to a wrestler. Coins depicting wrestlers found inside the tomb provide an intriguing clue about the identity of the person buried there and open a new window into the city’s Classical-era history. Source: Anadolu Agency.

Could This Be Evidence of Egypt’s Lost City of Msen?

New discoveries at Tel Abu Saify are adding to the evidence for a possible connection with the long-lost Egyptian city of Msen, including an inscription associated with Ramesses II. The findings could help researchers piece together the history and location of a city that has remained elusive for centuries. Source: The Media Line.

A 2,500-Year-Old Etruscan Treasure in a Well

Archaeologists excavating the Etruscan city of Kainua have uncovered remarkably preserved bronze objects hidden inside an ancient ritual well. Two female statuettes and a rare bronze bowl appear to have been deliberately deposited as offerings, suggesting the well may have played an important role in religious ceremonies. Source: HeritageDaily.

Quote

Hope is the dream of a waking man. - Aristotle

Poll Question

Last Week’s Poll Answer

During a naval battle in 184 BCE, the Carthaginian general, Hannibal, reportedly used clay pots filled with live, venomous snakes as a biological weapon hurled onto enemy decks.

———

And the Poll from August of last year (many apologies, I suck, I know):

The question was: King Leonidas and his 300 Spartans held the pass of Thermopylae and the Persians were unable to break through until which traitor led the vanguard of the Persian army over the mountain?

And was featured in the editorial newsletter:

The correct answer is Ephialtes.

Reminder: Paid Subscriptions and the Chat are Back!

Another thing worth sharing is that Paid Subscriptions are re-enabled! As a paid subscriber, not only will you get special access to both videos and special articles but your contributions will help support my project to continue providing the content you enjoy.

Expect to see fresh new paid subscriber content soon!

Starting today, Digging Up The Past is offering a Halloween promotional sale which ends on October 31st. Is it a bit early for a Halloween promotion? Nope! It is never too early for anything Halloween. 😄 Be sure to not miss out on getting 20% off annual subscriptions for all eternity! Mhua ha ha ha!

20% off annual subscriptions!

Oh, I almost forgot! The Chat is back! The only reason why it disappeared is because of all the spam accounts posting spam content and my hope is that Substack has a better control of it now.

Featured Image: The Erechtheum, western side, Acropolis, Athens, Greece. (Jebulon / CC0 1.0)

Think you've had a bad experience with a business? Imagine being so frustrated that you decided to complain about it nearly 4,000 years ago. One ancient customer did exactly that, and somehow, his complaint survived long enough for us to read it today. What could possibly have gone so wrong?

You might think vending machines are a pretty modern invention, but what if I told you the ancient Greeks were already using them more than 2,000 years ago? No snacks, no soda, and definitely no chips, but the basic idea was surprisingly familiar. So what exactly was this ancient machine dispensing, and how did it actually work?

New Content

You may have noticed that I have been posting short videos to post here and on the Digging Up The Past socials called One-Minute Dig. These videos are designed to be a fun source for quick and fascinating historical facts. I do hope you enjoy them. If you have any thoughts or ideas for future videos, then do not hesitate to reach out. The more obscure and lesser known, the better.

And while we are on the topic of recordings, I have more interviews lined up for future podcast episodes. This portion of my project of passion has historically been a challenge. Not many scholars agree to be on the program. You’d be surprised with the amount of “no” responses I receive before I eventually receive a “yes” and I respect that and truly appreciate those who have and will be on this program. Persistence is key!

Paid Subscriptions and the Chat are Back!

Another thing worth sharing is that Paid Subscriptions are re-enabled! As a paid subscriber, not only will you get special access to both videos and special articles but your contributions will help support my project to continue providing the content you enjoy.

Starting today, Digging Up The Past is offering a Halloween promotional sale which ends on October 31st. Is it a bit early for a Halloween promotion? Nope! It is never too early for anything Halloween. 😄 Be sure to not miss out on getting 20% off annual subscriptions for all eternity! Mhua ha ha ha!

20% off annual subscriptions!

Oh, I almost forgot! The Chat is back! The only reason why it disappeared is because of all the spam accounts posting spam content and my hope is that Substack has a better control of it now.

I will also try to get back to a more routine schedule. Work plus life has been a bit hectic lately with more traveling, kids’ activities, etc. Shame on me for losing consistency. I also immensely appreciate (and other guest authors) for helping me keep fresh content going on the site. By the way, you should REALLY check out Jess’s awesome Substack: Mythical Ancients. Anyway, I will try to do better.

Mythical Ancients

Journey into the World of Ancient Myth, Magic, and Adventure

By Jess Nadeau

I do have one question and one requests

What would you like to see more of with this Substack? Historical related, of course. Just reply in the comments. I am not making any promises but if enough of you ask…

Oh, and do not hesitate to engage! Like those posts or post a comment or two. This way I know what you like or don’t like. I have noticed that engagement on Substack is not what it used to me and it makes it more difficult to decide which type of content to focus more on.

20% off annual subscriptions!

What if I told you that one of the world’s oldest pregnancy tests was invented over 3,000 years ago? It sounds like something pulled straight out of a bizarre ancient medical manual, but there was actually some science behind it. So how did the ancient Egyptians do it, and could their strange little test really tell if someone was pregnant?

In this episode, we’re taking a look at one of history’s most famous mysteries: the Trojan Horse. Was it really a massive wooden horse wheeled into Troy, or was it something completely different that got lost somewhere along the way in the world’s oldest game of telephone?

From the Editor

It seems like everywhere you turn lately, people are talking about The Odyssey. That's hardly surprising. A couple of weeks ago, Christopher Nolan's long-awaited interpretation of Homeric epic arrived in theaters. The film has been a hit with general audiences and has earned plenty of praise, but it has also drawn its fair share of criticism. Like any adaptation of a story this iconic, it has sparked plenty of debate over what it got right, what it changed, and whether those changes were worth it.

I myself did take the opportunity to write a small review:

And even spoke about it at length with Boston journalist in the most recent episode of our podcast (there will be a few spoilers):

What were your thoughts on the film? Feel free to reply in the comments.

On the topic of the Trojan War and just in case you missed it, of Classical Wisdom recently published one of my pieces on whether the Trojan War actually happened. Be sure to check it out:

Classical Wisdom

Did the Trojan War Really Happen?

Dear Classical Wisdom Member…

Read more

a month ago · 63 likes · Anya Leonard

All of this reminds me of the time I physically held a 2,000 year old papyrus fragment of the Iliad. Yes, this is my photo from when I was allowed access to examine the amazing artifact.

In the News

Three New Assyrian Kings Identified

Researchers at Yale have identified three previously unknown Assyrian kings after studying a remarkable inscribed throne. The discovery helps fill gaps in the Assyrian royal lineage and offers fresh insight into one of the ancient Near East’s greatest empires. Source: Yale News.

Torchlit Rituals and Powerful Priestesses in Phrygia

New inscriptions from the ancient city of Acmonia reveal that torch-bearing statues were carried through the streets at night during religious ceremonies. The texts also highlight the prominent role of priestesses, giving us a fascinating glimpse into public rituals and female religious leadership in the Roman period. Source: La Brújula Verde.

Ancient Funerary Complex Discovered in Egypt

Archaeologists have uncovered an impressive funerary complex at Tell El-Deir in Egypt, complete with tombs, burial shafts, and a wealth of artifacts. The discovery is helping researchers better understand burial customs and daily life during a key period of Egyptian history. Source: Ahram Online.

Ancient Merchant Ship Found Off Andros Island

Divers exploring the waters off Greece’s Andros Island discovered the remains of an ancient merchant ship resting on the seabed. Its cargo and construction promise to reveal more about the trade networks that connected the ancient Mediterranean, making it an exciting find for maritime archaeology. Source: Archaeology Magazine.

Roman Villa Library Found in Spain

Archaeologists believe they have uncovered the oldest known library in the Iberian Peninsula inside a Roman villa near Córdoba. The discovery pushes the western edge of the Roman world’s literary culture farther than previously known and offers a rare glimpse into intellectual life in Roman Spain. Source: La Brújula Verde.

Wooden Beams Linked to Jerusalem’s First Temple

Researchers have analyzed charred wooden beams believed to date to the destruction of Jerusalem’s First Temple in 586 BC. These remains provide valuable physical evidence of one of the most significant events in ancient Jewish history and help archaeologists better understand the city’s final days before the Babylonian conquest. Source: Archaeology Magazine.

Quote

The end of labor is to gain leisure. - Aristotle

Poll Question

Featured image: Odysseus in the Cave of Polyphemus by Jacob Jordaens ca. 1630-1635. (Public Domain)

Be sure to visit Katy Kostakis’s blog: https://www.katykostakis.com and her Substack: http://noquietontheset.substack.com

Standing on Jerusalem’s Temple Mount in 70 CE, Roman commander Titus Flavius Vespasianus, better known simply as Titus, watched as flames engulfed the sacred Jewish Temple. As they leapt higher and consumed it, Jewish cries of terror and anguish echoed across Jerusalem. Meanwhile, Roman legionaries pillaged the precinct and reveled in the destruction until little was remaining of the once resplendent Temple.

For the Romans, this represented a victory, but for the Jews, it was an unthinkable catastrophe. The Romans had razed the Jews’ most holy site, and as a result, sacrificial worship virtually came to an end. For the nearly two millennia since, much of the Jewish faithful has mourned this loss, but beneath their agony lies an age-old question: How culpable was Titus in the Temple’s demolition?

From antiquity to the modern-day, historians have debated whether Titus wanted to save or topple the storied Temple. While it is impossible to ascertain what Titus was thinking on that fateful day, a re-examination of ancient commentary provides some clues.

By Titus’ era, much of the Jewish ancestral homeland fell under Rome’s control, but the pagan Romans weren’t particularly gracious overlords. They oppressed the Jews, and were often disrespectful of Jewish customs and religious practices, which caused numerous disturbances in the holy land.

By 66 CE, the Jews were eager to be free of the Romans’ tyrannical rule, and myriad Jews revolted. Then-Emperor Nero tasked Vespasian with crushing the rebellion. He in turn asked his son Titus to assist him and lead the 15th Legion. Together, they waged a methodical and deadly campaign. Within a few years, the Romans had subjugated nearly all enemy strongholds—save for Jerusalem, Herodium, Machaerus and Masada.

Around this time, the Roman geopolitical landscape shifted dramatically. Nero was deposed, and after a series of conflicts, Vespasian became emperor in 69 CE. He subsequently made his son the Jewish War’s supreme commander and charged him with sacking Jerusalem. When Titus arrived outside Jerusalem’s city walls in April 70 CE with upwards of 65,000-80,000 soldiers, many of the Jews trapped inside must have assumed that the Roman had one objective in mind: the complete destruction of Jerusalem and its holy Temple.

Despite the extended and bitter nature of the First Jewish War, Titus was still willing to negotiate with the Jewish revolutionaries. Ancient historian and Jewish military commander Josephus asserted that Titus on a number of occasions offered to spare Jerusalem and its hallowed Temple if the rebels would simply leave the city. Titus even promised to give them safe passage so that they could continue defying Rome elsewhere. They refused all such offers.

The Roman siege of Jerusalem continued, but the legionaries eventually neared the Temple complex. Soon enough, it became clear to Titus that the Temple would eventually fall into his hands, but what happened next depends on who you believe. According to Josephus who was present during the siege, Titus convened his lieutenants to determine the Temple’s fate.

After some debate, the commander decided to spare the Temple because it was a work of beauty that had never offended him. As such, he and his deputies issued orders to ensure the Temple’s survival, but his soldiers did not follow his directives. During a skirmish between some Roman legionaries and Jewish insurgents, the Romans fought their way into the Temple complex. Then a soldier hurled a piece of burning wood into the Temple where it caught light.

Someone alerted Titus to the Temple’s peril, and he rushed to the scene to save it. He ordered his troops to put out the flames, but many of his men ignored him. A number of others subsequently threw firebrands into the Temple. With this underway, Titus entered the Temple and determined that the sanctuary was not yet lost. He again implored his fellow Romans to preserve the Temple and empowered a company of lancers to defend it from Roman arsonists, but to no avail. Another Roman marched into the Temple with a firebrand and set it alight. The Temple was now irreparably lost.

This is the account that Josephus recorded, but not every ancient writer agreed. “Titus himself [held] the destruction of this temple to be a prime necessity of wiping out more completely the religion of the Jews and the Christians,” Christian writer Sulpicius Severus later asserted, “for they urged that these religions, although hostile to each other, nevertheless sprang from the same sources; the Christians had grown out of the Jews: if the root were destroyed, the stock would easily perish.”

Part of Severus’ statement is almost certainly incorrect. It is incredibly doubtful that Christianity factored into Titus’ calculus whatsoever, but Severus was emphatic that Titus wanted the Temple destroyed. Meanwhile, ancient Christian writer Paulus Orosius seemed to concur with Severus that Titus believed the Romans should consider razing it, “since its survival would encourage the enemy.”

So who is right?

First-hand accounts generally carry more credibility, and of all the historical reports, Josephus was the only author to personally witness the siege, which he described in detail in The Jewish War. Unfortunately, Josephus was not exactly an impartial, objective bystander. He was once a Jewish rebel leader, but after being captured, Vespasian and Titus spared his life and became his benefactors—providing him wealth, free land in Judaea and an apartment in Vespasian’s house. Josephus even adopted Vespasian and Titus’ family name: Flavius.

Considering Josephus’ loyalty to the Flavians and his Jewish background, he had reason to present the Flavians in the best possible light, while also exculpating Titus from one of the greatest sins from the Jewish perspective: defiling and demolishing the Temple. Simply put, Josephus had the motive to misrepresent the truth.

Other portions of Josephus’ account raise some questions too. He claimed on more than one occasion that Titus urged his men to save the Temple, but they willingly disobeyed him. It’s possible that they behaved in this manner, but that would mean that his troops were so undisciplined that they openly disregarded Titus’ directives in his presence. There are reasons to believe that Titus’ men struggled with restraint, but this would be an egregious and brazen offense. Instead, Josephus may have simply created this vignette so that Titus wouldn’t be directly blamed for the Temple’s burning.

Whatever the case, Titus’ men plundered the Temple and transported the invaluable relics back to Rome where they were used in a celebratory triumph. Again, if Titus had planned to preserve the Temple—and presumably its contents—but his soldiers had defied him, would he have carried the Temple plunder back to Rome? It’s impossible to know, but if he truly cared for the Temple’s well-being and was remorseful, then it is plausible that he would have surrendered the contents to the Jewish people.

The truth is that Titus was likely weary of the insurgents’ refusal to surrender and continued attempts to outlast the Romans. As a result, he and his legionaries wanted vengeance and to punish the Jews in such a terrible manner that they would never challenge Rome again. The Romans probably believed that there was one way of accomplishing this: toppling the Temple. This also served another benefit to the Romans: The Temple was the symbolic heart of the rebellion, and with it gone, perhaps Jewish uprisings would cease, the Romans likely assumed. They were wrong.

Another instance also shows that Titus might have supported the Temple’s destruction. After he sacked Jerusalem, some Sicarii attempted to foment a rebellion in Alexandria, Egypt. Their exploits were unsuccessful, and afterward Titus and/or Vespasian ordered the demolition of the Jewish Onias Temple in Egypt. This is important, too, because this temple had long stood as a minor rival to the Jerusalem Temple and Jews even conducted sacrifices there.

If Titus was pleased to level this remaining Jewish temple, then it may indicate that he had previously been supportive of dismantling the Jerusalem Temple. Yet the Onias Temple’s fate could represent something much more sinister. The combination of its destruction and the primary Temple’s may imply that Titus intended on removing the Jews’ ability to conduct sacrifices, which might have served as an attempt to wipe out Judaism.

While Josephus is an indispensable source on the First Jewish War, the evidence suggests that his relationship with the Flavians might have undermined the veracity of some of his work. It is certainly possible that Josephus was correct and Titus labored to safeguard the Temple. However, it seems more than likely that Titus either ordered or at least supported the holy Jewish Temple’s razing, as Severus reported. Regardless of Titus’ thoughts on the Temple’s fate, it has never been rebuilt, which is a painful reminder to the Jewish faithful of what transpired on that ruinous day in 70 CE.

Featured image: Destruction of the Jerusalem Temple by Francesco Hayez ca. 1867 (Public Domain)

Marc Hyden is a Roman historian, and he is the author of “Emperor Titus: The Right Hand of Vespasian.”

Emperor, general, and Vespasian’s right hand, Titus Flavius Vespasianus (better known as simply Titus) was remembered by the Romans as a leader to be celebrated and a deity to be worshiped. While he was not without fault--having committed numerous egregious transgressions--his life and achievements are undeniably impressive. He survived imperial turnover, lived through the great fire of Rome, presided over the empire as Vesuvius destroyed numerous cities and plague ravaged his homeland, and hosted Rome’s vaunted 100-days of games.

This book draws on the scant historical sources, the archaeological record, and modern academic commentary to present the most comprehensive available account of Titus’ life. Long neglected by historians, Titus’ significant role in Roman history is presented here in the fullest detail. Hero or villain, there are few pivotal historical figures like Titus who straddled more momentous history and whose effects are still felt today.

Podcasts

Yesterday, I had the opportunity to watch Christopher Nolan’s The Odyssey, and here are my thoughts and mini-review. There may be some spoilers. Let’s be honest though, it’s like Titanic. You already know how it ends. The only difference is that this story is nearly 3,000 years old.

Anyway, this is a story I have cherished for most of my life. Maybe that’s partly because of my Greek upbringing and the pride that comes with it, but the romantic in me loves it for what it is: a story about love, loss, perseverance, and so much more. At its core, it is a deeply human story that stirs emotions every one of us can relate to.

Taking a step back for a moment, it’s worth looking at how this epic came to be. I’ll keep it brief.

We know that Homer sang these stories in verse, accompanied by the lyre. He may or may not have been blind, but what we do know is that he was a bard. In the bardic tradition, tales of the Trojan War were passed down orally for generations before they were eventually written down.

But did you know that near the end of the Late Bronze Age, there were a series of conflicts between the Mycenaean Greeks and the Hittites along the Anatolian coast, and that a small city called Ilios, or Troy, was caught in the middle? Even more interesting, several of the heroes Homer sang about appear by name on surviving Hittite tablets. These conflicts unfolded over the course of more than a century. As time passed, the events blended together, and an epic was born.

Until these stories were finally committed to writing, multiple versions existed. That’s because a bard’s job was to entertain. With each performance, the story evolved, growing more dramatic and more fantastical as it adapted to its audience.

And that is how I choose to view Nolan’s interpretation. In many ways, he is following the same bardic tradition, telling the story through his own lens for a modern audience. I could sit here and point out every historical or literary inaccuracy until I’m blue in the face, but I think that misses the point. Nolan told the story his way while capturing the same emotions I feel every time I read the original. Yes, he took plenty of artistic liberties [1], but in the grand scheme of things, I don’t think they mattered. I was invested from beginning to end, and there were more than a few moments that nearly brought me to tears.

The movie left such an impression on me that I’m still thinking about it. Nolan’s attention to detail really brought the Homeric world to life. The Mycenaean architecture. The constant references to the Sea Peoples. Story elements pulled from other parts of the Trojan Cycle, including the Nostoi and Iliou Persis, not just the Iliad and the Odyssey. Even the decision to mute the Sirens’ song, sparing both Odysseus and the audience from its temptation.

There is so much to unpack, but one scene in particular immediately took me back to the place I consider my home away from home: Greece. And the scene I am referring to is when we observe the dolphins swimming alongside the ship.

Have you ever watched wild dolphins swimming and playing in the Mediterranean, Homer’s wine-dark sea? I have. Have you ever listened to the seals, their haunting calls echoing across the water like the songs of the Sirens? I have. Or explored the caves that inspired the Underworld and the homes of the Cyclopes? I have.

This is the world that gave birth to the stories we are still telling thousands of years later. It’s hard not to fall in love with it.

Don’t misunderstand me. I’m a purist at heart, but I applaud Nolan for reigniting public interest in one of the greatest stories ever told.

Notes

[1] Here is a very short list of the artistic liberties taken:

• Helen and Clytemnestra are are not twins but instead half sisters born to Queen Leda of Sparta.

• The Lotus-Eaters were omitted from the film while the lotus and its effects were kept and managed by Calypso.

• Circe was an old crone instead of a beautiful seductress.

• King Alcinous and the Scherians, omitted.

• Odysseus fooling the Cyclops after trying to reason with him, gone.

• Odysseus being gifted the wind bag by Aeolus, gone.

• Odysseus being handed the moly from Hermes to protect him from Circe’s spells, also not present.

• One thing I did appreciate about Nolan’s adaptation is the believability of Odysseus trying to make it back home to his wife and not sleeping with every beautiful woman he meets on his journey.

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An old Jewish joke says that for every two Jews, you have three opinions, but that could also apply to biblical scholars.

Because no two biblical scholars can agree on anything, and they oftentimes disagree with themselves, eagerly hedging their own theories, proposing counter-options.

It is true that academics quarrel over theories for a living, but biblical scholarship takes it to a whole other level and is notorious for the complete lack of agreement on even the most basic views on the Bible.

Who wrote what and when? For every two biblical scholars, you’ll get three opinions

But there’s one theory that is an exception to this rule.

There’s one biblical scholarship theory out there that everyone seems to agree on and nobody in the last 150 years has tried to dismantle it. Even though it’s a dramatic and bold theory about who wrote what and when. It’s very specific - it says that the biblical book of Deuteronomy was written no later than 622 BCE, and most probably in 622 BCE itself.

It is extraordinarily rare for biblical scholars to commit to such precise dating, a practice they usually try to avoid like the plague of pestilence.

This popular theory though does not seem to have been properly scrutinized, and this is where this little post comes in.

Let me present the theory so I can debunk it and propose a different dating for the writing of Deuteronomy.

First, the details: in 1805, the German biblical scholar Wilhelm Martin Lebrecht de Wette proposed dating of Deuteronomy to 622 BCE because of a biblical account that can be found in 2 Kings 22-23, set in 622 BCE, where an ancient book is found, or “found”, and that book sure seems like it was Deuteronomy.

That means that a biblical book, Deuteronomy, that appears near the beginning of the Bible, was written at a time of events that take place much later in the Bible, around 2 Kings.

As the account, or “account”, goes, the High Priest of the Jerusalem Temple handed to the royal scribe a scroll he stumbled onto in the Jerusalem Temple as it was being renovated. The royal scribe read this scroll aloud to the Judean King at the time, in one of the most dramatic moments in ancient Hebrew history, according to the theory.

After hearing the contents of this book, the Judean King felt compelled to radically reverse centuries-long religious traditions and policies to adhere to the ones mentioned in this book.

In practicality, it meant purging all non-Yahweh religions in Judea, destroying and defiling countless shrines and executing offending priests. And destroying all shrines and altars dedicated to Yahweh, to make the Jerusalem Temple the only place allowed for Yahweh worship, and any worship really.

What a dramatic moment, about which we can read in 2 Kings 22-23. Let’s read a little, beginning in chapter 22, verse 8:

“The High Priest Hilkiya said to Shaphan the scribe, “I have found the book of the Law in the House of Yahweh… Shaphan then read it aloud to the king. When the kings heard the words of the book of the law, he tore his clothes… ‘our ancestors did not obey the words of this book.’”

And then in 2 Kings, 23, 2 and onwards:

“The King went up to the House of Yahweh, and with him went all the people of Judea, all the inhabitants of Jerusalem, the priests, the prophets, and all the people, both small and great. He read in their hearing all the words of the book of the covenant that had been found in the House of Yahweh.”

According to this De Wette 1805 theory, Josiah read Deuteronomy to the people on that day in 622 BCE.

Why? Because the book 2 Kings 22-23 refers to is called the Book of the Law (Torah) and the Book of the Covenant (Brit), which are the two main names of Deuteronomy, according to Deuteronomy.

And if we wanted to list the top two laws of Deuteronomy, they would be purging all non-Yahweh religions from the Hebrew land and abolishing any Yahweh worship outside the Jerusalem Temple, exactly the new policies enacted by Josiah in 622 BCE, according to the biblical account.

Scholars take this biblical account at face value, assuming that if it is set in 622 BCE, then it must reflect events that happened in 622 BCE.

Let’s go back to 2 Kings, 23, beginning in verse 4:

“The king commanded… to bring out of the temple of Yahweh all the vessels made for Ba’al and Ashera, and for all the host of heaven. He burned them outside Jerusalem… He deposed the idolatrous priests… broke down… defiled… burned [their altars], broke the pillars in pieces, cut down the sacred poles and covered the sites with human bones.

He slaughtered on the altars all the priests of the high places who were there and burned human bones on them.”

That’s what Deuteronomy calls on the Hebrews to do: destroy and defile all shrines and execute idol worshipers.

And one final link between the scroll King Josiah read and Deuteronomy is that Josiah is said to have loved Yahweh “with all his heart and with all his soul”, which is precisely what Deuteronomy asks the Hebrews to do throughout Deuteronomy.

So, on the face of it, it seems airtight: same two names of the book, same top two laws of the book. Meaning that Deuteronomy was written no later than 622 BCE, in the Kingdom of Judea during Assyrian Times. As long as you don’t look any closer than that, don’t scrutinize the theory or think about it some more, it’s pretty much an open and shut case.

But since we’re already here, let’s think about it some more, and we’ll see that things do not stand up to scrutiny.

The theory hinges on this uber dramatic moment in Hebrew history - a stunning, sudden and violent reversal of long-standing religious traditions, plus destroying, burning, defiling and slaughtering.

One can only imagine the pain felt on the receiving end, their rage, their trauma. One can also only imagine what it was like for the perpetrators and collaborators with these purges. One can only imagine because the Bible has nothing more to say about this dramatic moment. Once you turn the page on 2 Kings, 23, it’s as if this dramatic purge, slaughter, and centralization never happened, because nobody knows it happened. Even Yahweh doesn’t remember it one page later.

Yahweh will complain about the Hebrew people committing many sins towards him, but he will never mention them failing to follow this new covenant and law, supposedly enacted in 622 BCE by Josiah.

Once we turn the page, literally, from 2 Kings, 23 to 24, the whole things disappears. Evaporates. As if it never happened. Poof.

That should have been a red flag for biblical scholars that something is off with the “accounts” of the finding of this scroll and the ensuing radical religious reforms. If this was supposed to be one of the most dramatic moments in Hebrew history, why did it just go poof and everyone immediately forget it ever happened? How could a purge and slaughter disappear so quickly? If this reform didn’t change anything at all, then how can it have been so important?

Usually, when religions are purged, people talk about it, argue for or against it, they mourn or gloat. Except this one. No one cares about this dramatic religious reform. Josiah dies at the end of 2 Kings, 23, and that’s that.

Basically, the “accounts” in 2 Kings 22-23 could have been added to the book at a later stage, after the rest of the Bible was written, and that would explain why the rest of the Bible is not aware of Josiah’s reform. So, instead of 622 BCE, we should look for a later date that matches Deuteronomy’s purge, slaughter and centralization policies.

There was one later point in history when the Hebrew leader purged all foreign religions from the land, executed idolatrous priests and centralized Yahweh worship in Jerusalem – when the Maccabees established an independent Hebrew state in 140 BCE.

Interestingly, Deuteronomy is a book about the renewal of national Hebrew sovereignty over the Hebrew land, completely irrelevant for the Judean Kingdom of 622 BCE, and totally in line with the establishment of the Maccabean Hebrew state. That state conquered and confiscated the lands and wealth of their enemies, and Deuteronomy calls to divide up the Hebrew land among the Hebrew people. Deuteronomy is a populistic book, and the Maccabees were populists.

King Josiah was not a populist and he did not redistribute any land to the people in 622 BCE, because that would be anathema of kingdoms at that time.

In reality, the closer you look at Deuteronomy and compare it with the rise of the Maccabean state in 140 BCE, the more similarities you will find between them.

Non-Yahweh worship was banned once and for all in 140 BCE, Hebrew idol worship stopped being a thing, other altars, shrines and temples under Hebrew Maccabean sovereignty were destroyed, the Jerusalem Temple was the only sanctioned place of worship - all prominent elements of Deuteronomy.

I have recently concluded my fifth season of the podcast, focusing on Deuteronomy, and the closer you look at Deuteronomy, the more you find Maccabean 140 BCE elements in it.

Basic Jewish law, such as the Shabbat, circumcision and Kosher food are all staples of Deuteronomy, and they appear in the historical record only after 140 BCE.

Deuteronomy calls for the expansion of Hebrew borders beyond the Jordan River, which the Maccabees did. Deuteronomy has complex and rich Hebrew that is more evolved than anything else in the Torah, which works with it being a Maccabean addition. If Deuteronomy was written no later than 622 BCE, that causes a problem since so much of the Bible is firmly dated to Babylonian and Persian times. That would mean that the Hebrew language is the one language in history that does not evolve naturally, but that it sometimes evolves, then devolves and evolves again.

That would be a first.

At the end of the day, the theory that dates Deuteronomy to 622 BCE relies on taking the Bible’s word that the text of 2 Kings 22-23 is truthful and correct, and not, God forbid, a later addition that the Maccabees added in 140 BCE.

If the Bible said Deuteronomy was found in 622 BCE, then that must be true.

I propose dating Deuteronomy to 140 BCE, relying on identicalities between the Maccabees and Deuteronomy in geopolitics, politics, religion, worship, ideology and economy.

And then, there’s also linguistics.

Biblical scholarship has, unfortunately, not considered the possibility that parts of the Bible were written by the Maccabean state in 140 BCE. That’s a stone they left unturned. If they were to one day turn it, they will find there more than an ancient law scroll.

Featured image: A side view of the Torah, open to the Book of Exodus. (Bejinhan / CC-BY SA 3.0)

A Podcast of Biblical Proportions goes over the entire Hebrew Bible, story by story, book by book, trying to understand the people who wrote them. You can learn a lot about people from the stories they wrote, and you can learn a lot about the time they lived in. Gil Kidron is a Hebrew-speaking writer and editor.

To listen, visit: https://podcastofbiblicalproportions.com

Long ago, monsoons, rivers, and wide lakes once defined North Africa’s Holocene landscape. Nomadic communities established domains and domesticated animals, flourishing amidst the comforts of a temperate world. They crafted arrowheads and basketry, fished and hunted, and moved about, leaving traces of their existence here and there. However auspicious these people’s beginnings, it seems the vast Sahara was never really meant for paradise. Water began to vanish, vegetation withering into dust along with it; all that would remain were scattered oases and the ageless Nile.

Subsequently, groups of people began to cluster around the Nile, ubiquitous in their fates to forge a new way of life. Its soil brought fertility and inundations, an opportunity for permanent settlement and agriculture. Later, they thrived in pastoralism and agriculturalism, with settlements sprawling near the southern valley or the northern delta, developing a cultural dichotomy between the two.

For a few thousand years, the people of the Nile fostered this dichotomy, but that, too, like the fickle temperance of nature, was never meant to remain. The Egypt known today arose from domination and mergence, the very foundations of pharaonic rule. Yet before two cultures would become one, there were kings, smiting foreign rivals and carving the path to a unified kingdom—kings who endure through images that echo the creature they embody, their power carried in a single, unyielding name: Scorpion.

Early Naqada Culture

Nearing the end of the Holocene and into the Neolithic era, two distinct cultures formed along the Nile. From roughly 3800 – 3200 BCE, the region of the Delta in Lower Egypt was dominated by the Maadi-Buto culture, named after its principal settlements. They practiced the domestication of animals and crops, wheel-based pottery, copper metallurgy, and traded with regions surrounding Egypt and the Mediterranean. Burials and lithics were of Levantine style. Yet, they were of little influence on the evolution of Egyptian culture compared to their southern neighbors.

The Naqada culture’s earliest phase developed alongside another early culture in the southern region. The Badarians, characterized by their agropastoral lifestyles centered around the use of cattle for nearly every aspect of survival, would later come to influence East African cultures even to this day. Still, it did not take long for the Naqada to dwarf them in comparison. The people of Naqada began their dominion over the southern reaches of the Nile by establishing small villages and settlements, cultivating the rich soil of the Nile Valley, particularly wheat and barley, and quickly accruing an impressive collection of animals. Black-topped, red clay pottery incised with scenes of everyday life, bricks, palettes for cosmetics, war maces, bearded male figures, and female fertility figures attest to the extent of their artistic accomplishments so early on. The deceased were buried with small statuettes, food, weapons, amulets, painted vessels, and palettes. Each village represented itself with a unique animal totem, perhaps its own animalistic deity as well.

By 3500 BCE, Naqada had become masters of their craft. This specific time in Naqada history is often referred to as Gerzean (Naqada II), after archaeological finds near its village. Cosmetic palettes became ceremonial objects, flanked with intricately carved shields or animal shapes and motifs. Stone vessels, mace heads, and copper metalworks were in high demand, fostering trade with Mesopotamia and Asia. Vivid washes of red scenes painted in ochre contrasted with pale pottery, reminiscent of their Palestinian and Mesopotamian neighbors. The cylindrical seal, a Mesopotamian administrative device, was also utilized for trade. Towns, villages, and urban centers grew dense with people as previous nomadic lifestyles faded into the past, trade bolstering an already promising community.

It seemed Naqada was well on its way to distinction and prominence, so much so that its influence began to slowly make its way north. However, it was not their influence that stood out during this time. Burial rites evolved into extravagant displays with rectangular walls of wood or stone or tombs lined with ritually shattered pottery or framed in painted portrayals. Then followed grand palaces, monumental complexes, and macabrely ambitious ceremonial practices.

Nekhen, City of the Falcon, otherwise known as Hierakonpolis, was the first of its time in architectural marvels. Gods and goddesses sprang from the primordial to establish their cult centers in places like Nekhen. As such, the cult of Horus was founded as gateways gave way to a massive courtyard, encircled by small structures, not so different from the ritual precincts of early dynasties. This complex lasted until the Ptolemaic epoch, with various features found in the first pyramid of Djoser, and precious artifacts unearthed beneath its floors. It was here that Horus was said to have defeated Seth in their battle for the kingdom.

Perhaps the most notable aspect of Naqada during this time was its elite necropolis at Nekhen. Mingled among the dead were 150 or more wild and domesticated animals, now known as the world’s first zoo. Baboons, elephants, leopards, dogs, a hippopotamus, and a crocodile were all found in fixed groups or, in the case of the many canines, alongside their deceased owners. Evidence suggests the wild animals, buried with healed injuries from beatings and restraints, were kept for an extended period of time prior to their burials. The animals likely represented sacred guardians and ceremonial figures meant to aid and accompany the dead or act as votive offerings to the gods. Nevertheless, animals would continue to be employed in similar ways, whether mummified and buried or revered as manifestations of gods; their bones bore the beginnings of a culture devoted to Death’s decree.

Dynasty Zero

The third and final period of Naqada was perhaps the most pivotal in shaping Egyptian culture. It has gone by several names: Naqada III, Semainean, the Protodynastic or Predynastic Period, or Dynasty O. By this time, between 3200 – 3000 BCE, the kingdoms of Upper and Lower Egypt were clearly defined. Though Upper Egypt had ample influence, Lower Egypt in the Delta had proven itself adept in both commerce and bureaucracy. Their strategic location gave them uninhibited access to the Mediterranean’s trade-rich waters. Bustling centers like Buto, Maadi, and Tell Farka supported smaller realms ruled by their own independent kings. There was no hierarchy among them, at least one that can be seen from the archaeological record.

In Upper Egypt, kings reigned from their capital of Nekhen, far more socially stratified than those of Lower Egypt. Those who ruled personified their gods, believed to name themselves after the sacred animals that distinguished their villages. Painted and carved images show scenes of nature, rivers, plants, animals, and agriculture. Irrigation systems grew more sophisticated, allowing for plentiful cultivation and expansion. Throughout Egypt, influences from Mesopotamia continued to find their way into tombs, tools, seals, architecture, and adornments. Even early mythical creatures, like the winged chimera serpopard—Egyptian Sefer, the one who moves to the sun—found their way into early Egyptian iconography.

Yet, the people of Upper Egypt were noticeably different than those of Lower Egypt. While Lower Egypt fostered bureaucratic diplomacy, Upper Egypt did not. Iconography from the time flaunts captives and wild animals tamed before an imposing king, his hand raised in smite, a pose that would come to be known as the smiting posture. Enemies lie before his feet or are torn to bits by animals. It is clear from these images, carved upon palettes and mace heads, that the Naqada of Upper Egypt had evolved into a warring nation.

The two kingdoms of Egypt would remain relatively cooperative throughout most of this period. Their cultures were similar enough to be siblings, but different enough to establish separation. Gods like Ra, Horus, Hathor, Seth, Min, Nemty, Nekhbet, Bat, and Wepwawet gave rise to one of the most complex religious systems in the world and the eldest of Egyptian gods. Each kingdom had its own symbols, strengths, and weaknesses. Nekhbet, the vulture, governed the Nile Valley, and Wadjet, the cobra, reigned in the Delta. Lower Egypt excelled in trade, while Upper Egypt flourished in artistic specializations, weaponry, and war. The Red Crown, Deshret, pointed in the back and spiraling up in the front, sat atop the kings of Lower Egypt. In Upper Egypt, their White Crown, Hedjet, formed an eloquent mound atop their heads.

This period, however, is considered pivotal for a reason. Behind the cordialities, tension brewed as Upper Egypt became highly organized conquerors. What began as a consolidation of power would inevitably lead to the unification of all of Egypt under the pharaoh. Narmer (Menes) would be immortalized as the first king of two kingdoms, but he did not do it all on his own.

The Scorpion’s Sting

For most of the Naqada era, there were no discernible written texts, hieroglyphics, or records of kings. Kings’ lists recorded later only mention the last of sovereigns. Most of what is known of the time comes from burials, artwork, and what was left of their architecture that carried on. Echoes of the past are evident in ancient Egyptian culture, nonetheless. Towards the end of the Predynastic, hieroglyphs began to take shape; palettes, maces, and inscriptions told stories. It was clear that something extraordinary occurred that shifted control in both Upper and Lower Egypt.

There were two rulers essentially responsible for this shift in Egypt, both going by the same epithet; their true names are unknown. The first of the Scorpions was buried in a tomb at Abydos, one of the centers of power for Upper Egypt and a resting place for other Thinite sovereigns of the region. It is likely, then, that he was from Thinis, another power center of the southern kingdom. With him were small ivory plaques, two of which bear the hieroglyphic-like symbols of Baset and Buto. Buto was widely known in Lower Egypt, a place with little reason to leave behind its mark in the tomb of a Thinite king. Though perhaps, as an offering or tribute, it may point to Scorpion’s reach and army. He was indeed one of the first to depict himself in violent conquest.

To further solidify Scorpion’s role in the grand design, a graffito found etched in rock in the western desert of Thebes eternally named him as the glorious victor in a battle against Bull’s Head, a name also found within his tomb. Taken together, archaeological and iconographical evidence points to Scorpion as the uniter of Upper Egypt, fiercely conquering the kings of his realm, finally consolidating power, and making moves in Lower Egypt. It is quite likely that the offering found from Buto in his tomb was given in futile effort to sway against taking parts of the Delta as well.

However crucial Scorpion I may have been to the union of Egypt, it is his successor whose image became a legend. Some have argued that both Scorpions are the same. Others say he was the famed Narmer himself. Neither holds credence. Though he may be Narmer’s predecessor, rival, or something entirely different. So little is truly known of the Scorpions, other than what their images reflect. Scorpion II’s tomb is still unknown, though iconography suggests it may be at Abydos or Nekhen (Hierakonpolis). What he is best known for is his ceremonial mace head, discovered at Nekhen, 25 cm in size and far too large for practical use. Upon it are vivid scenes, encompassing the entirety of its roundness in hieroglyphic-esque registers.

Scorpion II is shown in a hierarchical scale, with a ceremonial bull’s tail, the White Crown of Upper Egypt, and a prominent scorpion symbol. He holds a large hoe in his hands, cutting the first furrows of the season or opening the irrigation flood. A servant throws seeds; another carries bundled grain. Below them are the markings of a village, with its roads, houses, and people. Above are standard bearers, carrying their sacred symbols and staffs. Two trail the king, heavy fans drawn, while papyrus grows behind them. As the procession of bearers moves toward the king, another procession makes its way from the opposite direction. Dancers and priests in neat lines wrap around the opposite side, meeting the king just as his servants do.

In the uppermost register, rows of divine standards are mounted by their gods or the crests of nomes. On one side, ground-nesting birds called lapwings hang from these standards. On the opposite, hunting bows hang. It is believed that the bows may represent Asiatic tribes; the lapwings were the ordinary people of Egypt. For both to hang from the standards of gods and nomes suggests defeat. Modern scholars find this to be compelling evidence that Scorpion II led a campaign in Lower Egypt, possibly encountering resistance by the people while simultaneously pacifying problematic borders.

Scorpion II’s mark can also be found on ivory tags, alongside symbols for a nome, garden, or land, or next to the symbol for a swallow bird, meaning to be great. He is seen in the famed smiting pose, arm lifted in the moment before throwing down fury. Rocks and inscriptions show symbols reminiscent of the serekhs of the later pharaonic titulary. Another graffito found in the Second Cataract region of the Nile depicts the image of a massive scorpion, crushing Nubian enemies beneath its clawed pedipalps. Their bodies are dragged by a male figure who wears a false beard upon his chin and a ceremonial knife at his waist. The opportunity for unification was there, amidst the chaos of the scorpion’s sting; Narmer merely needed to follow its path of poison.

Unification Under Narmer

There are two leading theories as to how unification occurred. One states that there was increased elitism in Upper Egypt, inevitably leading to a cultural takeover, with the Naqada first dominating and consolidating Upper Egypt and then Lower Egypt. The second theory suggests that both Upper and Lower Egypt evolved through syncretism, with cultural exchange taking place between the two, ending in a predominantly Naqada culture. It is known that the Naqada were outwardly aggressive and warlike, given the plethora of artwork towards the end of the Predynastic that celebrates subjugation.

Though exchange between Upper and Lower Egypt may have been peaceful, the result, just as likely, may have been a violent clash of powers. The Scorpion mace head depicts possible victims of attack in Lower Egypt; however, the majority of enemies depicted in these scenes were iconographically foreign. Either way, around 3100 BCE, according to the ancient Egyptians, Narmer achieved unification.

The famous Narmer palette, so strikingly similar in motif and symbolism to Scorpion’s, displays the king wearing the White Crown on one side and the Red Crown on the other. On the side in which he wears the White Crown and false beard, he is in a hierarchal scale, viciously smiting a crouching enemy. The symbol for the falcon Horus is to his right, and his sandal bearer to his left. On the other side, he is depicted much smaller, along with regional standards. His enemies lie decapitated in neat rows, heads resting between their legs. In the middle, a large image of twin serpopards (Sefers) with entwined necks is held back by servants. A bull near the bottom breaks the wall of a city, a dead man at its feet. Both are topped with dual bull’s heads and a serekh at their center.

After Narmer unified Egypt, Thinis became the new seat of power for the first pharaohs. The capital would eventually move to Memphis, situated in the middle of the kingdom. Powerful families of the previous era likely fought amongst each other, struggling to control a kingdom destined for singular rule. It would have taken some time for order after the upheaval of amalgamation. The old kings of the past would soon be forgotten, some remembered on kings’ lists and iconography, but most bore names and lives never to be deciphered.

Symbol of the Scorpion

Since the Predynastic Period, the scorpion has been a fearsome symbol of veneration. Its sting was a very real hazard; females especially held a great deal more poison and were larger in size. Penetrating poison burned like flames surging through the body, causing shortness of breath, and could be fatal to children and the elderly. Medico-magical texts and formulas for the dead had numerous spells, incantations, and remedies for their venom. Its connection to the fragility of children extended to the god Horus, displayed on the Metternich Stele, vanquishing evil as he gripped serpents, scorpions, and other dreadful creatures.

The scorpion also had a deity of its own, Serqet, a goddess and protector. Her image, carved into canopic jars, protected the viscera of the dead as she guided them into the afterlife and gave them new breath. In life, she was able to manipulate the creatures of her being, either by protecting people from their stings or punishing those who spite her. Physicians who treated the wounds of scorpions were also known as her followers. Throughout tombs, her image displays a woman who carries a scorpion atop her head or as a scorpion with the head and torso of a woman.

As pregnant Isis left the house of Seth, who vowed to destroy her unborn son, Horus, she found solace in the seven manifestations of Serqet. They followed her throughout Egypt as she searched for a safe place to hide her child once he was born. Traveling from town to town, she finally came upon a place to rest, knocking at the door of a woman who hastily slammed it in her face. Seven scorpions later scurried under the door and stung the hostile woman’s son. The house then caught fire, and the woman took to the streets, shrieking in horror. Isis came, calmly resting her hands on the child. The fire was extinguished, and the boy miraculously healed. Ashamed, the woman supplicated for forgiveness with gifts pleasing to the goddess.

Though history only knows the Scorpions through images on stone, they exemplify the power that the deceiving small creatures wielded over the people. They were dauntingly fierce, claiming lands as quickly as the scorpion can whip its tail, deliver its deadly venom, and watch it spread. Still, they were always more than their conquests. Just as the goddess Serqet controlled the breath of life, they gave Egypt renewed breath. Guiding the kingdoms and their future pharaoh to unification, like death guides the dead to rebirth, their actions and culture redefined Egypt into a kingdom of gods, sacred and eternal.

Featured image: King Scorpion II, detail from his mace head, Ashmolean Museum, Oxford. (Udimu, CC BY-SA 3.0)

References

• Strudwick, H. 2006. The Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt. Sterling Publishing

• Clayton, Peter A. 2006. Chronicle of the Pharaohs: The Reign-by-Reign Record of the Rulers and Dynasties of Ancient Egypt. Thames & Hudson.

• Brewer, Douglas. J. 2005. Ancient Egypt: Foundations of a Civilization. Pearson Education Limited. Available at: https://archive.org/stream/AncientEgypt-FoundationsOfACivilization/AncientEgypt-FoundationsOfACivilization_djvu.txt

• Hill, J. 2010. Naqada Culture. Ancient Egypt Online. Available at: https://ancientegyptonline.co.uk/naqada/

• El-Hennawy, H. 2011. Scorpions in Ancient Egypt. Euscorpius—Occasional Publications in Scorpiology, No.119. Available at: https://www.academia.edu/3712316/Scorpions_in_ancient_Egypt

See more of Alexis Prescott’s research on this topic:

• Pen & Sword: https://www.pen-and-sword.co.uk/blog/the-romans-and-the-halloween-style-witch

• And YouTube: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-7KYoMYP5q4 and https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=itzBwrR9xvg