Did the Neo-Assyrian pantheon of deities also include YHWH?
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It was very common for Neo-Assyria to absorb the deities of neighboring [and conquered] nations. For instance, after razing the kingdom of Urartu (Ararat) to the ground, the Neo-Assyrians carried the statue of their supreme deity, Haldi, back to their capital where now, the Neo-Assyrian god of gods, Ashur, commanded over him and the many others in the pantheon. But was YHWH, the god of the Israelites, part of that pantheon?
Well, before we answer that question, let us answer another one first: was YHWH worshipped by ANY other nation outside of Israel?
Clues within Semitic Theophorism and Archaeological Evidence
How does theophorism come into play? [1] With a study in proper names found within a region, we can see that there was a worship of that specific deity within that same region. For example, we know that the second ruler of the kingdom of Judah after the split of both kingdoms was named Abijam (‘my father is the sea’ or ‘my father is Yam’) [2], which indicates that there was a worship of the Canaanite god of the sea, Yam local to Judah. We can get the same results from Ishbaal (‘man of Baal’), where a deity that took the epithet of Baal was worshipped locally to the individual named. These theophoric names were commonly used by everyone, not just royalty and priestly types, but also the average layperson.
We find the same themes incorporating the name of YHWH throughout the ancient world, but let us first start with a few of many examples in the Israelite and Judahite King List. These kings display their names with theophoric themes in both the beginning or at the end. The name of the patriarch who founded the kingdom of Judah is a good start (i.e. Yehuda). Yehuda or ‘Yeh has praised’ incorporates the divine name of YHWH. Picking up names from the King List, we will observe kings who prefix the name of YHWH in their titles, such as Jehoshaphat, Jehu, Jehoahaz, Jehoram, Jehoiakim and more. For example, Yehoshaphat translates to ‘Yeh has judged’ while Yehu means ‘Yeh is He.’ As for kings with the same name suffix, they come in two forms: yah or yahu. Example can be found in the name of Ahaziah. Ahaziyahu translates to ‘Yahu holds’ or ‘possesses.’
With the many kings taking the name of YHWH, it can easily be determined that at least in the earliest part of the split monarchy, YHWH was a very popular deity. But what if I told you that YHWH was never local to just Israel and Judah but instead worshipped throughout the Near East.
I was interested to find a couple of Phoenician kings theophorically linked with YHWH. We have royal inscriptions from a 10th century BCE Yehimilk, and again a 5th-4th century BCE inscription from a Yehaumilk. [3] Not much is known about these kings. Another king found in the annals of Tiglathpileser II spoke of a Yahu-tarsi whose region of rule was unknown. [4] All we know is that Yahu-tarsi was located somewhere in the Anatolian or Levantine region.
How about in the Assyrian pantheon?
Now what if I told you that I have found an inscription commissioned by an Assyrian king that testifies to YHWH’s worship in Mesopotamia? That inscription belongs to Asshurnasirpal II who reigned between 883–859 BCE. [5]
[1.33] I am great and I am glorious, Assur-nasir-habal, a mighty King of Assyria, proclaimer of the Moon-god, worshipper of Anu, exalter of Yav, suppliant of the gods…
[ … ]
[1.76] Ahiyababa the son of Lamamana they brought from Bit-Adini and made him their King. By help of Assur and Yav
[1.77] the great gods who aggrandize my royalty, chariots, (and) an army, I collected…
[1.78] in abundance from Salman-haman-ilin of the city of Sadikannai and of Il-yav of the city of Sunai, silver, gold,…[ … ]
[1.104] in honor of Assur, the Sun-god and Yav, the gods in whom I trust, my chariots and army I collected at the head of the river Zupnat,…
[ … ]
[2.22] of Ahiramu son of Yahiru of the land of Nilaai son of Bahiani of the land of the Hittites and of the Princes of the land of Hanirabi, silver, gold,
[2.23] tin, kam of copper, oxen, sheep, horses, as their tribute I received; in the eponym of Assuridin they brought me intelligence that
[2.24] Zab-yav Prince of the land of Dagara had revolted…[ … ]
[2.30] their spoil, their youths, their oxen, and sheep I carried off; Zab-yav for the preservation of his life, a rugged mountain
[2.31] ascended…[ … ]
[2.48] from the city of Tuklat-assur-azbat I withdrew; the land of Nispi accepted my yoke; I went down all night; to cities of remote site in the midst of Nispi
[2.49] which Zab-yav had established as his stronghold I went, took the city of Birutu and consigned it to the flames…[ … ]
[2.106] I gave them battle; on two days before sunrise like Yav the inundator I rushed upon them; destruction upon them I rained with the might
[2.107] and prowess of my warriors…[ … ]
[2.135] an altar to Ninip my Lord I therein consecrated: a temple for Beltis, Sin, and Gulanu, Hea-Manna and Yav great ruler of heaven and earth I founded.
[ … ]
[3.77] I imposed upon him; the chariots and warlike engines of the land of the Khatti I laid up in my magazines; their hostages I took. In those days (I received) the tribute of Guzi
[3.78] of the land of Yahanai, silver, gold, tin, … oxen, sheep, vestments of wool and linen I received: from Kunalua the capital of Lubarna I withdrew;
[3.79] of the land of the Khatti, crossed the Orontes, and after a halt left it, and to the borders
[3.80] of the land of Yaraki and of Yahturi I went round: the land . . . had rebelled: from the Sangura after a halt I withdrew;[ … ]
[3.119] I destroyed the armies of the spacious land of Lulumi. In battle by weapons I smote them down. With the help of the Sun-god
[3.120] and Yav, the gods in whom I trust, I rushed upon the armies of Nairi, Kirkhi Subariya and Nirbi like Yav the inundator;[ … ]
[3.129] to his yoke hath subdued, and the rebels against Assur, high and low, hath opposed and imposed on them impost and tribute - Assur-nasir-pal
[3.130] mighty King, glory of the Moon-god worshipper of Anu, related to Yav, suppliant of the gods, an unyielding servant, destroyer of the land of his foes…
From these excerpts we get a better idea of the extent of the worship of YHWH. As an example, we know that His worship even extended as far north as Anatolia [from column 2 and line 22 of Asshurnasirpal’s annals]. We read of an Ahiramu son of Yahiru of the land of Nilaai son of Bahiani of the land of the Hittites. Who is this Yahiru? Whoever he was, he existed during the Neo-Hittite period, which rose at ca. 1180 BCE and lasted roughly until ca. 700 BCE. The Neo-Hittites or Syro-Hittites were Luwian, Aramaic and Phoenician speaking peoples of Iron Age northern Syria and southern Anatolia.
What I found the most interesting, though, was the affiliation between the Assyrian YHWH and floods: like Yav the inundator I rushed upon them, written more than once on this inscription. To an individual who was not familiar with the Hebrew Bible, they would believe that this Yav (also transliterated as Yaw) was nothing more than a warlike flood god. I am quickly reminded of the link between Yam, the god of the sea in Canaanite myth and the epithet of Yaw given to him (see below). One thing that I would like to mention before moving onto the next section is scholars have speculated that this may in fact be the personal name of Yam, as opposed to the generic title of Yam or ‘sea.’ The title or name of Yaw has also been linked to the Greek Ieuō, who is in the account of Eusebius based on Sanchuniathon, [6] an ancient deity in Beirut who is equated with Poseidon. [7]
Located on the first tablet and fourth column (Ll. 12-15) of the myth of Baal and Yam, [8] we see this Ugaritic connected between Yam and Yaw: [9]
12: tgr.ỉl.bnh.tr [ ]
13: wy‛n.lṭ‹p›n.ỉl.dp [ỉd ]
14: šm.bny.yw.ỉlt [ .w ]
15: wp‛r.šm.ym [ .wỉlt.w ]
12: El …his son, the bull [ ]
13: and Latipan [kindly] god spoke [ ]
14: ‘the name of my son is Yaw, o Elat [and]
15: ‘so do you proclaim a (new) name for Yam.’ [And Elat and ]
The text reveals El calling Yam by the name or title of Yaw.
Orthographical Studies
Why do I claim that the Ugaritic Yaw and the Assyrian Yav are to be equated with YHWH? The answer is: orthography. I wish to begin by citing an excerpt taken from a book I treasure: [10]
…In Hebrew, the principle of phonetic consonantism was followed down to the 10th century B.C., first through the use of the Proto-Canaanite alphabet, then under the direct influence of Phoenician spelling. This circumstance, a logical inference from the history of the Israelites and their cultural and commercial relations in the 10th century, is confirmed by the orthography of the Gezer Calendar.
…The first important modification in the Phoenician orthographic system was made, apparently by the Arameans, shortly after they borrowed the alphabet (ca. 11th-10th centuries B.C.). Besides adapting the alphabet to the representation of non-Phoenician phonemes (by their closest equivalents in the Phoenician alphabet), they radically altered the basic principles of spelling. A system was developed for the indication of final vowels by the signs for consonants, which were homogeneous with the vowel sounds: yodh for final ī, waw for final ū, and he for the remaining vowel sounds…
…The same system for the representation of final vowels was used in Moabite (with minor variations) and Hebrew from the 9th century on. It is concluded that the center of radiation was Aram.
Evidence for the extension of the Aramaic system of vowel representation to indicate medial vowels comes from the Zinčirli inscriptions of the 8th century. It is instructive that the earliest examples do not arise from the historical spelling of contracted diphthongs, but rather from the extension of final matres lectionis (yodh and waw) to the medial position with the same values. This process may have begun in Hebrew in the 6th century, but very few cases occur, just as in the Aramaic of the 8th-7th centuries. Their occurrence is sporadic until the period of general diphthongal contraction in Aramaic and Hebrew.
It is imperative to know all of this because it will aid in the understanding of how the name of YHWH evolved. The problem is when modern day students of biblical Hebrew attempt to vocalize or determine the proper pronunciation of this name, they only apply their knowledge of biblical Hebrew as it is taught with a Masoretic background, utilizing all the matres lectiones. This understanding is also Judaean in origin, and it should be noted that Hebrew held different dialects, therefore making it simple to tell the difference between something written from Israel and something written from Judah. Unfortunately in modern studies, orthography rarely comes into play. Prior to this form, as is seen in earlier Israelite writings, the ending hey was not present, leaving us with YHW. As for pronunciation, this has not changed. There was an attempt by the scribes to preserve the original form in an evolving language, which forced them to add a hey at the end, indicating the terminating sound of an e or a. Ignoring the later established Masoretic rules and strictly following early orthography and the evolution of the matres lectiones which led to the Masoretic rules, will all forms of YHWH be linked together. Observing how yhw evolved into yhwh gives us four options in the pronunciation of the name: (1) YaHWe (2) YeHWe (3) YaHWa and (4) YeHWa. Studying Moabite orthography and the introduction of the final hey into their script, it has been determined by both Cross and Freedman that the hey indicates a terminating e sound, leaving us with YaHWe or YeHWe. [11] I am not necessarily trying to confirm the correct pronunciation, but attempting to move back in time to make some connections. Going even earlier to Bronze Age Ugaritic, which also derived from the consonantal only proto-Canaanite, much like the later dating Phoenician, we see similar habits. Matres lectiones were not used, the language was written in just consonants. Originally written in the Ugaritic cuneiform, we transliterate yw. Knowing what we know of the evolution of the matres lectiones, we know that vowel indicators were never inserted into any Ugaritic texts and can see how this yw would be pronounced YaWe or even YeWe. The same concept should apply to the Semitic language of Assyrian.
Some additional evidence to link the Canaanite Yam and YHWH may rest in the second king of Judah after the split of both kingdoms, Abijam. As mentioned earlier, Abijam theophorically links himself with Yam. Later on in history, the chronicler refers to Abijam as Abiah, which translates to ‘my father is Yah [12] (again, an abbreviated form of YHWH). Was this link known early on, and was the name changed to prevent any confusion?
Baal and Yam and YHWH Linked with Water
I had made a brief reference to the myth of Baal and Yam above. [13] The story begins with Kothar-and-Khasis, the craftsman of the gods, going to the source of the rivers and the two oceans to the tent of the supreme god El. [14] El then instructs Kothar-and-Khasis to build a palace for prince Yam (who is also called judge Nahar or ‘river’). On top of that, El wishes to bestow the kingship of the gods to Yam. It is apparent later on in the story that in order for Yam to secure his power and throne, he would have to drive his rival, Baal, from his throne and from the seat of his dominion. All this means is that Baal was already king, soon to be replaced by Yam. Eventually, Baal engages in battle with Yam and is having a difficult time defeating him, mainly because of Yam’s power and of the fierce sea creatures that move around him. Kothar-and-Khasis assists Baal by giving him two divine clubs/ maces to assist him in battle alongside instructions on how to use them so that he may deliver the final blow to Yam. Baal succeeds in killing Yam.
It is generally believed that this myth can be interpreted as a seasonal cycle to which every year, Baal kept at bay the unruly waters and storms by bringing forth the dry season of summer. Ugarit was a coastal city, and therefore relied on the Mediterranean as a source for food and a means of transportation in trade. By defeating Yam, Baal ensured that it was possible to sail in the spring. Some believe that this story is somewhat of a counterpart to the Babylonian Enuma Elish, where Marduk slays Tiamat. [15]
Coincidently, we do observe YHWH’s powers over water buried within the Old Testament. For instance, we read the following in Exodus 15 and 17:
15:20 And Miriam the prophetess, the sister of Aaron, took a timbrel in her hand; and all the women went out after her with timbrels and with dances.
15:21 And Miriam sang unto them:
Sing ye to YHWH, for He is highly exalted:
The horse and his rider hath He thrown into the sea.17:5 And YHWH said unto Moses: 'Pass on before the people, and take with thee of the elders of Israel; and thy rod, wherewith thou smotest the river, take in thy hand, and go.
17:6 Behold, I will stand before thee there upon the rock in Horeb; and thou shalt smite the rock, and there shall come water out of it, that the people may drink.' And Moses did so in the sight of the elders of Israel.
In Exodus 15:21 we are given the beginning of the song of Miriam and it is generally believed that this poem predates the prose of the surrounding text indicating an early version of our deity who is seen commanding the water of the seas.
Later traditions would go on to credit Him with other events such as the Flood of Noah. [16] Another thing of interest are YHWH’s acts of shaking the earth or ripping the surface open. [17] Sea gods were generally referred to as earth-shakers, bringing forth destruction (i.e. tidal waves or earthquakes); similar to the Greek mythological Poseidon. Addressed in Homeric hymns, Poseidon is “mover of the earth and barren sea, god of the deep.”
After all of this I am left with a couple of puzzling question: Is this the root of the Israelite/ Judahite polemics against Baalism? Does it all stem from Baal and Yam’s epic battle?
Featured image: A close up of a Lamassu head (human-head bull) from Khorsabad, Iraq. From the reign of Sargon II, 710-705 BC. ( Osama Shukir Muhammed Amin FRCP / CC BY-SA 4.0)
Notes
[1] Theophoric (Greek: theos = god + phoreo = to bear) names are derived from or include the name of a deity. For example eliyahu which translates to ‘my God is Yah.’
[2] Reference Appendix C for King Lists.
[3] Markoe, Glenn E. Phoenicians. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California P, 2000. 113-115.
[4] Smith, George. Assyrian Discoveries. New York: Scribner, Armstrong & Co, 1875. 280.
[5] An inscription belonging to the Neo-Babylonian Nebuchadnezzar bears praises to the same deity: “To the god Yav, establisher of fertility in my land, Bit-Numkan as his temple in Babylon I built…” and “…to the god Yav who confers the fertilizing rain upon my land, his house (also) in Borsippa I strongly built.
[6] Sanchuniathon or Sanchoniathon or Sanchoniatho is the purported Phoenician author of three lost works originally in Phoenician, surviving only in partial paraphrase and summary of a Greek translation by Philo of Byblos, according to the Christian bishop Eusebius of Caesarea. These few fragments comprise the most extended literary source concerning Phoenician religion in either Greek or Latin.
[7] Gibson, John. Canaanite Myths and Legends. 2nd ed. Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark Ltd., 1978. 4.
[8] In Ugaritic Yam (Yamu) means Ocean/ Sea. He is an actual son of El (God) and is sometimes referred to as Prince Sea and Judge River. When in conflict with Baal, Yam is identified as a seven-headed sea serpent or dragon. Many scholars have linked this creature with the biblical Leviathan and Rahab, a mythical monster personifying the watery chaos. Reference Psalm 89:5-10 and Job 7:12.
[9] CTA 2 (Corpus Tablettes Alphabetiques)
[10] Cross, Frank M., and David N. Freedman. Early Hebrew Orthography. Vol. 36. New Haven: American Oriental Society, 1952. 58-59.
[11] This can be hinted in later vocalizations of the divine name.
Greek renderings: Ιαώ (Iao), Ιαού (Iau), Ιευώ (Ievo), Ιαβέ (Iave), Ιαωουε (Iao-u-e), Ιαουαί (Ia-u-e), Ιαβαι (Iave), etc.
Latin renderings: IAHO, Jabe, IAUE, etc.
[12] Reference 1 Chr. 3:10.
[13] CTA 1 and 2.
[14] Does this sound familiar to the reader? Similar to Eden, the Ugaritic El is said to dwell in Mount Lel at the source of the two rivers at the spring of the two deeps, in a tent (which may explain why he had no temple at Ugarit).
[15] Gibson, John. Canaanite Myths and Legends. 2nd ed. Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark Ltd., 1978. 6-8.
[16] Exo. 15:1b-18.
[17] Reference Exo. 15:20-21.
The most interesting thing to me would be the association with the sea - I always got the impression that god came from a history of sky gods? I like the water association better though.
Great thought-provoking piece! I'll be returning to this again, I think.